linux-insides/linux-bootstrap-1.md

Linux internals

Kernel booting process. Part 1.

If you have read my previous blog posts, you can see that some time ago I started to get involved with low-level programming. I wrote some posts about x86_64 assembly programming for Linux. At the same time, I started to dive into the Linux source code. It is very interesting for me to understand how low-level things work, how programs run on my computer, how they are located in memory, how the kernel manages processes and memory, how the network stack works on low-level and many many other things. I decided to write yet another series of posts about the Linux kernel for x86_64.

Note that I'm not a professional kernel hacker, and I don't write code for the kernel at work. It's just a hobby. I just like low-level stuff, and it is interesting for me to see how these things work. So if you notice anything confusing, or if you have any questions/remarks, ping me on twitter 0xAX, drop me an email or just create an issue. I appreciate it. All posts will also be accessible at linux-internals and if you find something wrong with my English or post content, feel free to send pull request.

Note that this isn't official documentation, just learning and sharing knowledge.

Required knowledge

• Understanding C code
• Understanding assembly code (AT&T syntax)

Anyway, if you just started to learn some tools, I will try to explain some parts during this and following posts. Ok, little introduction finished and now we can start to dive into kernel and low-level stuff.

All code is actual for kernel - 3.18, if there are changes, I will update posts.

Magic power button, what's next?

Despite that this is a series of posts about linux kernel, we will not start from kernel code (at least in this paragraph). Ok, you pressed magic power button on your laptop or desktop computer and it started to work. After the mother board sends a signal to the power supply, the power supply provides the computer with the proper amount of electricity. Once motherboard receives the power good signal, it tries to run the CPU. The CPU resets all leftover data in its registers and sets up predefined values for every register.

80386 and later CPUs defines the following predefined data in CPU registers after the computer resets:

IP          0xfff0
CS selector 0xf000
CS base     0xffff0000

The processor works in real mode now and we need to make a little retreat for understanding memory segmentation in this mode. Real mode is supported in all x86 compatible processors, from 8086 to modern Intel 64bit CPUs. The 8086 processor had a 20 bit address bus, which means that it could work with 0-2^20 bytes address space (1 megabyte). But it only had 16 bit registers, and with 16 bit registers the maximum address is 2^16 or 0xffff (64 kilobytes). Memory segmentation was used to make use of all of the address space. All memory was divided into small, fixed-size segments of 65535 bytes, or 64 KB. Since we can not address memory behind 64 KB with 16 bit registers, another method to do it was devised. An address consists of two parts: the beginning address of the segment and the offset from the beginning of this segment. To get a physical address in memory, we need to multiply the segment part by 16 and add the offset part:

PhysicalAddress = Segment * 16 + Offset

For example CS:IP is 0x2000:0x0010, physical address will be:

>>> hex((0x2000 << 4) + 0x0010)
'0x20010'

But if we take the biggest segment part and offset: 0xffff:0xffff, it will be:

>>> hex((0xffff << 4) + 0xffff)
'0x10ffef'

which is 65519 bytes over first megabyte. Since only one megabyte is accessible in real mode, 0x10ffef becomes 0x00ffef with disabled A20.

Ok, now we know about real mode and memory addressing, let's get back to register values after reset.

CS register consists of two parts: the visible segment selector and hidden base address. We know predefined CS base and IP value, logical address will be:

0xffff0000:0xfff0

In this way starting address formed by adding the base address to the value in the EIP register:

>>> 0xffff0000 + 0xfff0
'0xfffffff0'

We get 0xfffffff0 which is 4GB - 16 bytes. This point is the Reset vector. This is the memory location at which CPU expects to find the first instruction to execute after reset. It contains a jump instruction which usually points to the BIOS entry point. For example if we look in coreboot source code, we will see it:

	.section ".reset"
	.code16
.globl	reset_vector
reset_vector:
	.byte  0xe9
	.int   _start - ( . + 2 )
	...

We can see here jump instruction opcode - 0xe9 to the address _start - ( . + 2). And we can see that reset section is 16 bytes and starts at 0xfffffff0:

SECTIONS {
	_ROMTOP = 0xfffffff0;
	. = _ROMTOP;
	.reset . : {
		*(.reset)
		. = 15 ;
		BYTE(0x00);
	}
}

Now BIOS has started to work. After all initializations and hardware checking, it needs to load operating system. BIOS tries to find bootable device which contains boot sector. Boot sector is the first sector on device (512 bytes) and contains sequence of 0x55 and 0xaa at 511 and 512 byte. For example:

[BITS 16]
[ORG  0x7c00]

jmp boot

boot:
    mov al, '!'
    mov ah, 0x0e
    mov bh, 0x00
    mov bl, 0x07

    int 0x10
    jmp $

times 510-($-$$) db 0

db 0x55
db 0xaa

Build and run it with:

nasm -f bin boot.nasm && qemu-system-x86_64 boot

We will see:

In this example we can see that this code will be executed in 16 bit real mode and will start at 0x7c00 in memory. After the start it calls the 0x10 interrupt which just prints ! symbol. It fills rest of 510 bytes with zeros and finish with two magic bytes 0xaa and 0x55.

Real world boot loader starts at the same point, ends with 0xaa55 bytes, but reads kernel code from device, loads it to memory, parses and passes boot parameters to kernel and etc... instead of printing one symbol :) Ok, so, from this moment BIOS handed control to the operating system bootloader and we can go ahead.

NOTE: as you can read above the CPU is in real mode. In real mode, calculating the physical address in memory is as follows:

PhysicalAddress = Segment * 16 + Offset

as I wrote above. But we have only 16 bit general purpose registers. The maximum value of 16 bit register is: 0xffff; So if we take the biggest values, it will be:

>>> hex((0xffff * 16) + 0xffff)
'0x10ffef'

Where 0x10ffef is equal to 1mb + 64KB - 16b. But 8086 processor, which was first processor with real mode, had 20 bit address line, and 2^20 = 1048576.0 which is 1MB, so it means that actually available memory amount is 1MB.

General real mode memory map is:

0x00000000 - 0x000003FF - Real Mode Interrupt Vector Table
0x00000400 - 0x000004FF - BIOS Data Area
0x00000500 - 0x00007BFF - Unused
0x00007C00 - 0x00007DFF - Our Bootloader
0x00007E00 - 0x0009FFFF - Unused
0x000A0000 - 0x000BFFFF - Video RAM (VRAM) Memory
0x000B0000 - 0x000B7777 - Monochrome Video Memory
0x000B8000 - 0x000BFFFF - Color Video Memory
0x000C0000 - 0x000C7FFF - Video ROM BIOS
0x000C8000 - 0x000EFFFF - BIOS Shadow Area
0x000F0000 - 0x000FFFFF - System BIOS

But stop, at the beginning of post I wrote that first instruction executed by the CPU is located at address 0xfffffff0, which is much bigger than 0xffff (1MB). How can CPU access it in real mode? As I write about and you can read in coreboot documentation:

0xFFFE_0000 - 0xFFFF_FFFF: 128 kilobyte ROM mapped into address space

At the start of execution BIOS is not in RAM, it is located in ROM.

Bootloader

Now BIOS has transferred control to the operating system bootloader and it needs to load operating system into the memory. There are a couple of bootloaders which can boot linux, like: Grub2, syslinux and etc... Linux kernel has Boot protocol which describes how to load linux kernel.

Let us briefly consider how grub loads linux. GRUB2 execution starts from grub-core/boot/i386/pc/boot.S. It starts to load from device its own kernel (not to be confused with linux kernel) and executes grub_main after successfully loading.

grub_main initializes console, gets base address for modules, sets root device, loads/parses grub configuration file, loads modules etc... At the end of execution grub_main moves grub to normal mode. grub_normal_execute (from grub-core/normal/main.c) completes last preparation and shows a menu for selecting an operating system. When we select one of grub menu entries, grub_menu_execute_entry begins to be executed, which executes grub boot command. It starts to boot operating system.

As we can read in the kernel boot protocol, the bootloader must read and fill some fields of kernel setup header which starts at 0x01f1 offset from the kernel setup code. Kernel header arch/x86/boot/header.S starts from:

	.globl hdr
hdr:
	setup_sects: .byte 0
	root_flags:  .word ROOT_RDONLY
	syssize:     .long 0
	ram_size:    .word 0
	vid_mode:    .word SVGA_MODE
	root_dev:    .word 0
	boot_flag:   .word 0xAA55

The bootloader must fill this and the rest of the headers (only marked as write in the linux boot protocol, for example this) with values which it either got from command line or calculated. We will not see description and explanation of all fields of kernel setup header, we will get back to it when kernel uses it. Anyway, you can find description of any field in the boot protocol.

As we can see in kernel boot protocol, the memory map will be the following after kernel loading:

         | Protected-mode kernel  |
100000   +------------------------+
         | I/O memory hole        |
0A0000   +------------------------+
         | Reserved for BIOS      | Leave as much as possible unused
         ~                        ~
         | Command line           | (Can also be below the X+10000 mark)
X+10000  +------------------------+
         | Stack/heap             | For use by the kernel real-mode code.
X+08000  +------------------------+
         | Kernel setup           | The kernel real-mode code.
         | Kernel boot sector     | The kernel legacy boot sector.
       X +------------------------+
         | Boot loader            | <- Boot sector entry point 0x7C00
001000   +------------------------+
         | Reserved for MBR/BIOS  |
000800   +------------------------+
         | Typically used by MBR  |
000600   +------------------------+
         | BIOS use only          |
000000   +------------------------+

So after the bootloader transferred control to the kernel, it starts somewhere at:

0x1000 + X + sizeof(KernelBootSector) + 1

where X is the address kernel bootsector loaded. In my case X is 0x10000 (), we can see it in memory dump:

Ok, bootloader loaded linux kernel into memory, filled header fields and jumped to it. Now we can move directly to the kernel setup code.

Start of kernel setup

Finally we are in the kernel. Technically kernel didn't run yet, first of all we need to setup kernel, memory manager, process manager and etc... Kernel setup execution starts from arch/x86/boot/header.S at the _start. It is little strange at the first look, there are many instructions before it. Actually....

Long time ago linux had its own bootloader, but now if you run for example:

qemu-system-x86_64 vmlinuz-3.18-generic

You will see:

Actually header.S starts from MZ (see image above), error message printing and following PE header:

#ifdef CONFIG_EFI_STUB
# "MZ", MS-DOS header
.byte 0x4d
.byte 0x5a
#endif
...
...
...
pe_header:
	.ascii "PE"
	.word 0

It needs this for loading operating system with UEFI. Here we will not see how it works (will look into it in the next parts).

So actual kernel setup entry point is:

// header.S line 292
.globl _start
_start:

Bootloader (grub2 and others) knows about this point (0x200 offset from MZ) and makes a jump directly to this point, despite the fact that header.S starts from .bstext section which prints error message:

//
// arch/x86/boot/setup.ld
//
. = 0;                    // current position
.bstext : { *(.bstext) }  // put .bstext section to position 0
.bsdata : { *(.bsdata) }

So kernel setup entry point is:

	.globl _start
_start:
	.byte 0xeb
	.byte start_of_setup-1f
1:
	//
	// rest of the header
	//

Here we can see jmp instruction opcode - 0xeb to the start_of_setup-1f point. Nf notation means following: 2f refers to the next local 2: label. In our case it is label 1 which goes right after jump. It contains rest of setup header and right after setup header we can see .entrytext section which starts at start_of_setup label.

Actually it's first code which starts to execute besides previous jump instruction. After kernel setup got the control from bootloader, first jmp instruction is located at 0x200 (first 512 bytes) offset from the start of kernel real mode. This we can read in linux kernel boot protocol and also see in grub2 source code:

  state.gs = state.fs = state.es = state.ds = state.ss = segment;
  state.cs = segment + 0x20;

It means that segment registers will have following values after kernel setup starts to work:

fs = es = ds = ss = 0x1000
cs = 0x1020

for my case when kernel loaded at 0x10000.

After jump to start_of_setup, needs to do following things:

• Be sure that all values of all segment registers are equal
• Setup correct stack if need
• Setup bss
• Jump to C code at main.c

Let's look at implementation.

Segment registers align

First of all it ensures that ds and es segment registers point to the same address and enables interrupts with sti instruction:

	movw	%ds, %ax
	movw	%ax, %es
	sti

As i wrote above, grub2 loads kernel setup code at 0x10000 address and cs at 0x0x1020 because execution doesn't start from the start of file, but from:

_start:
	.byte 0xeb
	.byte start_of_setup-1f

jump, which is 512 bytes offset from the 4d 5a. Also need to align cs from 0x10200 to 0x10000 as all other segment registers. After that we setup stack:

	pushw	%ds
	pushw	$6f
	lretw

push ds value to stack, and address of 6 label and execute lretw instruction. When we call lretw, it loads address of 6 label to instruction pointer register and cs with value of ds. After it we will have ds and cs with the same values.

Stack setup

Actually, almost all of the setup code is preparation for C language environment in the real mode. The next step is checking of ss register value and making of correct stack if ss is wrong:

	movw	%ss, %dx
	cmpw	%ax, %dx
	movw	%sp, %dx
	je	2f

Generally, it can be 3 different cases:

• ss has valid value 0x10000 (as all other segment registers beside cs)
• ss is invalid and CAN_USE_HEAP flag is set (see below)
• ss is invalid and CAN_USE_HEAP flag is not set (see below)

Let's look at all of these cases:

1. ss has a correct address (0x10000). In this case we go to 2 label:

2: 	andw	$~3, %dx
	jnz	3f
	movw	$0xfffc, %dx
3:  movw	%ax, %ss
	movzwl %dx, %esp
	sti

Here we can see aligning of dx (contains sp given by bootloader) to 4 bytes and checking that it is not zero. If it is zero we put 0xfffc (4 byte aligned address before maximum segment size - 64 KB) to dx. If it is not zero we continue to use sp given by bootloader (0xf7f4 in my case). After this we put ax value to ss which stores correct segment address 0x10000 and set up correct sp. After it we have correct stack:

2. In the second case (ss != ds), first of all put _end (address of end of setup code) value in dx. And check loadflags header field with testb instruction too see if we can use heap or not. loadflags is a bitmask header which is defined as:

#define LOADED_HIGH	    (1<<0)
#define QUIET_FLAG	    (1<<5)
#define KEEP_SEGMENTS	(1<<6)
#define CAN_USE_HEAP	(1<<7)

And as we can read in the boot protocol:

Field name:	loadflags

  This field is a bitmask.

  Bit 7 (write): CAN_USE_HEAP
	Set this bit to 1 to indicate that the value entered in the
	heap_end_ptr is valid.  If this field is clear, some setup code
	functionality will be disabled.

If CAN_USE_HEAP bit is set, put heap_end_ptr to dx which points to _end and add STACK_SIZE (minimal stack size - 512 bytes) to it. After this if dx is not carry, jump to 2 (it will be not carry, dx = _end + 512) label as in previous case and make correct stack.

3. The last case when CAN_USE_HEAP is not set, we just use minimal stack from _end to _end + STACK_SIZE:

Bss setup

Last two steps before we can jump to see code need to setup bss and check magic signature. Signature checking:

cmpl	$0x5a5aaa55, setup_sig
jne	setup_bad

just consists of comparing of setup_sig and 0x5a5aaa55 number, and if they are not equal jump to error printing.

Ok now we have correct segment registers, stack, need only setup bss and jump to C code. Bss section used for storing statically allocated uninitialized data. Here is the code:

	movw	$__bss_start, %di
	movw	$_end+3, %cx
	xorl	%eax, %eax
	subw	%di, %cx
	shrw	$2, %cx
	rep; stosl

First of all we put __bss_start address in di and _end + 3 (+3 - align to 4 bytes) in cx. Clear eax register with xor instruction and calculate size of BSS section (put in cx). Divide cx by 4 and repeat cx times stosl instruction which stores value of eax (it is zero) and increase diby the size of eax. In this way, we write zeros from __bss_start to _end:

Jump to main

That's all, we have stack, bss and now we can jump to main C function:

	calll main

which is in arch/x86/boot/main.c. What will be there? We will see it in the next part.

Conclusion

This is the end of the first part about linux kernel internals. If you have questions or suggestions, ping me in twitter 0xAX, drop me email or just create issue. In the next part we will see first C code which executes in linux kernel setup, implementation of memory routines as memset, memcpy, earlyprintk implementation and early console initialization and many more.

Please note that English is not my first language and I am really sorry for any inconvenience. If you will find any mistakes please send me PR to linux-internals.

Links

• Intel 80386 programmer's reference manual 1986
• Minimal Boot Loader for Intel® Architecture
• 8086
• 80386
• Reset vector
• Real mode
• Linux kernel boot protocol
• CoreBoot developer manual
• Ralf Brown's Interrupt List
• Power supply
• Power good signal