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Merge pull request #417 from Shugyousha/grammarntypofixes

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Grammar and typofixes
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@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ struct memblock_type {
}; };
``` ```
This structure provides information about memory type. It contains fields which describe the number of memory regions which are inside the current memory block, the size of all memory regions, the size of the allocated array of the memory regions and pointer to the array of the `memblock_region` structures. `memblock_region` is a structure which describes a memory region. Its definition is: This structure provides information about the memory type. It contains fields which describe the number of memory regions which are inside the current memory block, the size of all memory regions, the size of the allocated array of the memory regions and pointer to the array of the `memblock_region` structures. `memblock_region` is a structure which describes a memory region. Its definition is:
```C ```C
struct memblock_region { struct memblock_region {
@ -52,15 +52,18 @@ struct memblock_region {
}; };
``` ```
`memblock_region` provides base address and size of the memory region, flags which can be: `memblock_region` provides the base address and size of the memory region as well as a flags field which can have the following values:
```C ```C
#define MEMBLOCK_ALLOC_ANYWHERE (~(phys_addr_t)0) enum {
#define MEMBLOCK_ALLOC_ACCESSIBLE 0 MEMBLOCK_NONE = 0x0, /* No special request */
#define MEMBLOCK_HOTPLUG 0x1 MEMBLOCK_HOTPLUG = 0x1, /* hotpluggable region */
MEMBLOCK_MIRROR = 0x2, /* mirrored region */
MEMBLOCK_NOMAP = 0x4, /* don't add to kernel direct mapping */
};
``` ```
Also `memblock_region` provides integer field - [numa](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access) node selector, if the `CONFIG_HAVE_MEMBLOCK_NODE_MAP` configuration option is enabled. Also `memblock_region` provides an integer field - [numa](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-uniform_memory_access) node selector, if the `CONFIG_HAVE_MEMBLOCK_NODE_MAP` configuration option is enabled.
Schematically we can imagine it as: Schematically we can imagine it as:
@ -69,7 +72,7 @@ Schematically we can imagine it as:
| memblock | | | | memblock | | |
| _______________________ | | | | _______________________ | | |
| | memory | | | Array of the | | | memory | | | Array of the |
| | memblock_type |-|-->| membock_region | | | memblock_type |-|-->| memblock_region |
| |_______________________| | | | | |_______________________| | | |
| | +---------------------------+ | | +---------------------------+
| _______________________ | +---------------------------+ | _______________________ | +---------------------------+
@ -85,7 +88,7 @@ These three structures: `memblock`, `memblock_type` and `memblock_region` are ma
Memblock initialization Memblock initialization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As all API of the `memblock` are described in the [include/linux/memblock.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/include/linux/memblock.h) header file, all implementation of these function is in the [mm/memblock.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/mm/memblock.c) source code file. Let's look at the top of the source code file and we will see the initialization of the `memblock` structure: As all API of the `memblock` are described in the [include/linux/memblock.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/include/linux/memblock.h) header file, all implementations of these functions are in the [mm/memblock.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/mm/memblock.c) source code file. Let's look at the top of the source code file and we will see the initialization of the `memblock` structure:
```C ```C
struct memblock memblock __initdata_memblock = { struct memblock memblock __initdata_memblock = {
@ -119,9 +122,9 @@ Here we can see initialization of the `memblock` structure which has the same na
#endif #endif
``` ```
You can note that it depends on `CONFIG_ARCH_DISCARD_MEMBLOCK`. If this configuration option is enabled, memblock code will be put to the `.init` section and it will be released after the kernel is booted up. You can see that it depends on `CONFIG_ARCH_DISCARD_MEMBLOCK`. If this configuration option is enabled, memblock code will be put into the `.init` section and will be released after the kernel is booted up.
Next we can see initialization of the `memblock_type memory`, `memblock_type reserved` and `memblock_type physmem` fields of the `memblock` structure. Here we are interested only in the `memblock_type.regions` initialization process. Note that every `memblock_type` field initialized by the arrays of the `memblock_region`: Next we can see the initialization of the `memblock_type memory`, `memblock_type reserved` and `memblock_type physmem` fields of the `memblock` structure. Here we are interested only in the `memblock_type.regions` initialization process. Note that every `memblock_type` field is initialized by and array of `memblock_region`s:
```C ```C
static struct memblock_region memblock_memory_init_regions[INIT_MEMBLOCK_REGIONS] __initdata_memblock; static struct memblock_region memblock_memory_init_regions[INIT_MEMBLOCK_REGIONS] __initdata_memblock;
@ -147,20 +150,20 @@ The last two fields describe that `bottom_up` allocation is disabled and the lim
which is `0xffffffffffffffff`. which is `0xffffffffffffffff`.
On this step the initialization of the `memblock` structure has been finished and we can look on the Memblock API. On this step the initialization of the `memblock` structure has been finished and we can have a look at the Memblock API.
Memblock API Memblock API
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ok we have finished with initialization of the `memblock` structure and now we can look on the Memblock API and its implementation. As I said above, all implementation of the `memblock` is presented in the [mm/memblock.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/mm/memblock.c). To understand how `memblock` works and how it is implemented, let's look at its usage first. There are a couple of [places](http://lxr.free-electrons.com/ident?i=memblock) in the linux kernel where memblock is used. For example let's take `memblock_x86_fill` function from the [arch/x86/kernel/e820.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/kernel/e820.c#L1061). This function goes through the memory map provided by the [e820](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E820) and adds memory regions reserved by the kernel to the `memblock` with the `memblock_add` function. As we met `memblock_add` function first, let's start from it. Ok we have finished with the initialization of the `memblock` structure and now we can look at the Memblock API and its implementation. As I said above, the implementation of `memblock` is taking place fully in [mm/memblock.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/mm/memblock.c). To understand how `memblock` works and how it is implemented, let's look at its usage first. There are a couple of [places](http://lxr.free-electrons.com/ident?i=memblock) in the linux kernel where memblock is used. For example let's take `memblock_x86_fill` function from the [arch/x86/kernel/e820.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/kernel/e820.c#L1061). This function goes through the memory map provided by the [e820](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E820) and adds memory regions reserved by the kernel to the `memblock` with the `memblock_add` function. Since we have met the `memblock_add` function first, let's start from it.
This function takes physical base address and size of the memory region and adds it to the `memblock`. `memblock_add` function does not do anything special in its body, but just calls: This function takes a physical base address and the size of the memory region as arguments and add them to the `memblock`. The `memblock_add` function does not do anything special in its body, but just calls the:
```C ```C
memblock_add_range(&memblock.memory, base, size, MAX_NUMNODES, 0); memblock_add_range(&memblock.memory, base, size, MAX_NUMNODES, 0);
``` ```
function. We pass memory block type - `memory`, physical base address and size of the memory region, maximum number of nodes which is 1 if `CONFIG_NODES_SHIFT` is not set in the configuration file or `1 << CONFIG_NODES_SHIFT` if it is set, and flags. The `memblock_add_range` function adds new memory region to the memory block. It starts by checking the size of the given region and if it is zero it just returns. After this, `memblock_add_range` checks for existence of the memory regions in the `memblock` structure with the given `memblock_type`. If there are no memory regions, we just fill new `memory_region` with the given values and return (we already saw the implementation of this in the [First touch of the linux kernel memory manager framework](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-3.html)). If `memblock_type` is not empty, we start to add new memory region to the `memblock` with the given `memblock_type`. function. We pass the memory block type - `memory`, the physical base address and the size of the memory region, the maximum number of nodes which is 1 if `CONFIG_NODES_SHIFT` is not set in the configuration file or `1 << CONFIG_NODES_SHIFT` if it is set, and the flags. The `memblock_add_range` function adds a new memory region to the memory block. It starts by checking the size of the given region and if it is zero it just returns. After this, `memblock_add_range` checks the existence of the memory regions in the `memblock` structure with the given `memblock_type`. If there are no memory regions, we just fill new a `memory_region` with the given values and return (we already saw the implementation of this in the [First touch of the linux kernel memory manager framework](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-3.html)). If `memblock_type` is not empty, we start to add a new memory region to the `memblock` with the given `memblock_type`.
First of all we get the end of the memory region with the: First of all we get the end of the memory region with the:
@ -177,9 +180,9 @@ static inline phys_addr_t memblock_cap_size(phys_addr_t base, phys_addr_t *size)
} }
``` ```
`memblock_cap_size` returns new size which is the smallest value between the given size and `ULLONG_MAX - base`. `memblock_cap_size` returns the new size which is the smallest value between the given size and `ULLONG_MAX - base`.
After that we have the end address of the new memory region, `memblock_add_range` checks overlap and merge conditions with already added memory regions. Insertion of the new memory region to the `memblock` consists of two steps: After that we have the end address of the new memory region, `memblock_add_range` checks for overlap and merge conditions with memory regions that have been added before. Insertion of the new memory region to the `memblock` consists of two steps:
* Adding of non-overlapping parts of the new memory area as separate regions; * Adding of non-overlapping parts of the new memory area as separate regions;
* Merging of all neighboring regions. * Merging of all neighboring regions.
@ -202,7 +205,7 @@ We are going through all the already stored memory regions and checking for over
} }
``` ```
If the new memory region does not overlap regions which are already stored in the `memblock`, insert this region into the memblock with and this is first step, we check that new region can fit into the memory block and call `memblock_double_array` in other way: If the new memory region does not overlap with regions which are already stored in the `memblock`, insert this region into the memblock with and this is first step, we check if the new region can fit into the memory block and call `memblock_double_array` in another way:
```C ```C
while (type->cnt + nr_new > type->max) while (type->cnt + nr_new > type->max)
@ -223,13 +226,13 @@ while (type->cnt + nr_new > type->max)
} }
``` ```
As we set `insert` to `true` in the first step, now `memblock_insert_region` will be called. `memblock_insert_region` has almost the same implementation that we saw when we insert new region to the empty `memblock_type` (see above). This function gets the last memory region: Since we set `insert` to `true` in the first step, now `memblock_insert_region` will be called. `memblock_insert_region` has almost the same implementation that we saw when we inserted a new region to the empty `memblock_type` (see above). This function gets the last memory region:
```C ```C
struct memblock_region *rgn = &type->regions[idx]; struct memblock_region *rgn = &type->regions[idx];
``` ```
and copies memory area with `memmove`: and copies the memory area with `memmove`:
```C ```C
memmove(rgn + 1, rgn, (type->cnt - idx) * sizeof(*rgn)); memmove(rgn + 1, rgn, (type->cnt - idx) * sizeof(*rgn));
@ -279,7 +282,7 @@ if (base < end) {
} }
``` ```
In this case we insert `overlapping portion` (we insert only the higher portion, because the lower portion is already in the overlapped memory region), then the remaining portion and merge these portions with `memblock_merge_regions`. As I said above `memblock_merge_regions` function merges neighboring compatible regions. It goes through the all memory regions from the given `memblock_type`, takes two neighboring memory regions - `type->regions[i]` and `type->regions[i + 1]` and checks that these regions have the same flags, belong to the same node and that end address of the first regions is not equal to the base address of the second region: In this case we insert `overlapping portion` (we insert only the higher portion, because the lower portion is already in the overlapped memory region), then the remaining portion and merge these portions with `memblock_merge_regions`. As I said above `memblock_merge_regions` function merges neighboring compatible regions. It goes through all memory regions from the given `memblock_type`, takes two neighboring memory regions - `type->regions[i]` and `type->regions[i + 1]` and checks that these regions have the same flags, belong to the same node and that the end address of the first regions is not equal to the base address of the second region:
```C ```C
while (i < type->cnt - 1) { while (i < type->cnt - 1) {
@ -295,19 +298,19 @@ while (i < type->cnt - 1) {
} }
``` ```
If none of these conditions are not true, we update the size of the first region with the size of the next region: If none of these conditions are true, we update the size of the first region with the size of the next region:
```C ```C
this->size += next->size; this->size += next->size;
``` ```
As we update the size of the first memory region with the size of the next memory region, we move all memory regions which are after the (`next`) memory region one index backward with the `memmove` function: As we update the size of the first memory region with the size of the next memory region, we move all memory regions which are after the (`next`) memory region one index backwards with the `memmove` function:
```C ```C
memmove(next, next + 1, (type->cnt - (i + 2)) * sizeof(*next)); memmove(next, next + 1, (type->cnt - (i + 2)) * sizeof(*next));
``` ```
And decrease the count of the memory regions which are belongs to the `memblock_type`: And decrease the count of the memory regions which belong to the `memblock_type`:
```C ```C
type->cnt--; type->cnt--;
@ -328,9 +331,9 @@ After this we will get two memory regions merged into one:
That's all. This is the whole principle of the work of the `memblock_add_range` function. That's all. This is the whole principle of the work of the `memblock_add_range` function.
There is also `memblock_reserve` function which does the same as `memblock_add`, but only with one difference. It stores `memblock_type.reserved` in the memblock instead of `memblock_type.memory`. There is also `memblock_reserve` function which does the same as `memblock_add`, but with one difference. It stores `memblock_type.reserved` in the memblock instead of `memblock_type.memory`.
Of course this is not the full API. Memblock provides APIs for not only adding `memory` and `reserved` memory regions, but also: Of course this is not the full API. Memblock provides APIs not only for adding `memory` and `reserved` memory regions, but also:
* memblock_remove - removes memory region from memblock; * memblock_remove - removes memory region from memblock;
* memblock_find_in_range - finds free area in given range; * memblock_find_in_range - finds free area in given range;
@ -394,13 +397,13 @@ And you will see something like this:
![Memblock](http://oi57.tinypic.com/1zoj589.jpg) ![Memblock](http://oi57.tinypic.com/1zoj589.jpg)
Memblock has also support in [debugfs](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugfs). If you run kernel not in `X86` architecture you can access: Memblock also has support in [debugfs](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugfs). If you run the kernel on another architecture than `X86` you can access:
* /sys/kernel/debug/memblock/memory * /sys/kernel/debug/memblock/memory
* /sys/kernel/debug/memblock/reserved * /sys/kernel/debug/memblock/reserved
* /sys/kernel/debug/memblock/physmem * /sys/kernel/debug/memblock/physmem
for getting dump of the `memblock` contents. to get a dump of the `memblock` contents.
Conclusion Conclusion
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

76
mm/linux-mm-2.md
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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ Linux kernel memory management Part 2.
Fix-Mapped Addresses and ioremap Fix-Mapped Addresses and ioremap
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
`Fix-Mapped` addresses are a set of special compile-time addresses whose corresponding physical address do not have to be a linear address minus `__START_KERNEL_map`. Each fix-mapped address maps one page frame and the kernel uses them as pointers that never change their address. That is the main point of these addresses. As the comment says: `to have a constant address at compile time, but to set the physical address only in the boot process`. You can remember that in the earliest [part](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-1.html), we already set the `level2_fixmap_pgt`: `Fix-Mapped` addresses are a set of special compile-time addresses whose corresponding physical addresses do not have to be a linear address minus `__START_KERNEL_map`. Each fix-mapped address maps one page frame and the kernel uses them as pointers that never change their address. That is the main point of these addresses. As the comment says: `to have a constant address at compile time, but to set the physical address only in the boot process`. You can remember that in the earliest [part](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-1.html), we already set the `level2_fixmap_pgt`:
```assembly ```assembly
NEXT_PAGE(level2_fixmap_pgt) NEXT_PAGE(level2_fixmap_pgt)
@ -21,8 +21,8 @@ As you can see `level2_fixmap_pgt` is right after the `level2_kernel_pgt` which
``` ```
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+------------------+ +-----------+-----------------+---------------+------------------+
| | | | | | | | | |
|kernel text| kernel | | vsyscalls | |kernel text| kernel | | vsyscalls |
| mapping | text | Modules | fix-mapped | | mapping | text | Modules | fix-mapped |
|from phys 0| data | | addresses | |from phys 0| data | | addresses |
| | | | | | | | | |
+-----------+-----------------+---------------+------------------+ +-----------+-----------------+---------------+------------------+
@ -36,9 +36,9 @@ Base virtual address and size of the `fix-mapped` area are presented by the two
#define FIXADDR_START (FIXADDR_TOP - FIXADDR_SIZE) #define FIXADDR_START (FIXADDR_TOP - FIXADDR_SIZE)
``` ```
Here `__end_of_permanent_fixed_addresses` is an element of the `fixed_addresses` enum and as I wrote above: Every fix-mapped address is represented by an integer index which is defined in the `fixed_addresses`. `PAGE_SHIFT` determines size of a page. For example size of the one page we can get with the `1 << PAGE_SHIFT`. In our case we need to get the size of the fix-mapped area, but not only of one page, that's why we are using `__end_of_permanent_fixed_addresses` for getting the size of the fix-mapped area. In my case it's a little more than `536` kilobytes. In your case it might be a different number, because the size depends on amount of the fix-mapped addresses which are depends on your kernel's configuration. Here `__end_of_permanent_fixed_addresses` is an element of the `fixed_addresses` enum and as I wrote above: Every fix-mapped address is represented by an integer index which is defined in the `fixed_addresses`. `PAGE_SHIFT` determines the size of a page. For example size of the one page we can get with the `1 << PAGE_SHIFT`. In our case we need to get the size of the fix-mapped area, but not only of one page, that's why we are using `__end_of_permanent_fixed_addresses` for getting the size of the fix-mapped area. In my case it's a little more than `536` kilobytes. In your case it might be a different number, because the size depends on amount of the fix-mapped addresses which are depends on your kernel's configuration.
The second `FIXADDR_START` macro just subtracts fix-mapped area size from the last address of the fix-mapped area to get its base virtual address. `FIXADDR_TOP` is a rounded up address from the base address of the [vsyscall](https://lwn.net/Articles/446528/) space: The second `FIXADDR_START` macro just subtracts the fix-mapped area size from the last address of the fix-mapped area to get its base virtual address. `FIXADDR_TOP` is a rounded up address from the base address of the [vsyscall](https://lwn.net/Articles/446528/) space:
```C ```C
#define FIXADDR_TOP (round_up(VSYSCALL_ADDR + PAGE_SIZE, 1<<PMD_SHIFT) - PAGE_SIZE) #define FIXADDR_TOP (round_up(VSYSCALL_ADDR + PAGE_SIZE, 1<<PMD_SHIFT) - PAGE_SIZE)
@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ static inline unsigned long virt_to_fix(const unsigned long vaddr)
} }
``` ```
`virt_to_fix` takes virtual address, checks that this address is between `FIXADDR_START` and `FIXADDR_TOP` and calls `__virt_to_fix` macro which implemented as: `virt_to_fix` takes a virtual address, checks that this address is between `FIXADDR_START` and `FIXADDR_TOP` and calls the `__virt_to_fix` macro which implemented as:
```C ```C
#define __virt_to_fix(x) ((FIXADDR_TOP - ((x)&PAGE_MASK)) >> PAGE_SHIFT) #define __virt_to_fix(x) ((FIXADDR_TOP - ((x)&PAGE_MASK)) >> PAGE_SHIFT)
@ -78,17 +78,17 @@ static inline unsigned long virt_to_fix(const unsigned long vaddr)
A PFN is simply an index within physical memory that is counted in page-sized units. PFN for a physical address could be trivially defined as (page_phys_addr >> PAGE_SHIFT); A PFN is simply an index within physical memory that is counted in page-sized units. PFN for a physical address could be trivially defined as (page_phys_addr >> PAGE_SHIFT);
`__virt_to_fix` clears the first 12 bits in the given address, subtracts it from the last address the of `fix-mapped` area (`FIXADDR_TOP`) and shifts the result right on `PAGE_SHIFT` which is `12`. Let me explain how it works. As I already wrote we will clear the first 12 bits in the given address with `x & PAGE_MASK`. As we subtract this from the `FIXADDR_TOP`, we will get the last 12 bits of the `FIXADDR_TOP` which are present. We know that the first 12 bits of the virtual address represent the offset in the page frame. With the shifting it on `PAGE_SHIFT` we will get `Page frame number` which is just all bits in a virtual address besides the first 12 offset bits. `Fix-mapped` addresses are used in different [places](http://lxr.free-electrons.com/ident?i=fix_to_virt) in the linux kernel. `IDT` descriptor stored there, [Intel Trusted Execution Technology](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusted_Execution_Technology) UUID stored in the `fix-mapped` area started from `FIX_TBOOT_BASE` index, [Xen](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen) bootmap and many more... We already saw a little about `fix-mapped` addresses in the fifth [part](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-5.html) about linux kernel initialization. We use `fix-mapped` area in the early `ioremap` initialization. Let's look on it and try to understand what is `ioremap`, how it is implemented in the kernel and how it is related to the `fix-mapped` addresses. `__virt_to_fix` clears the first 12 bits in the given address, subtracts it from the last address the of `fix-mapped` area (`FIXADDR_TOP`) and shifts the result right on `PAGE_SHIFT` which is `12`. Let me explain how it works. As I already wrote we will clear the first 12 bits in the given address with `x & PAGE_MASK`. As we subtract this from the `FIXADDR_TOP`, we will get the last 12 bits of the `FIXADDR_TOP` which are present. We know that the first 12 bits of the virtual address represent the offset in the page frame. With the shifting it on `PAGE_SHIFT` we will get `Page frame number` which is just all bits in a virtual address besides the first 12 offset bits. `Fix-mapped` addresses are used in different [places](http://lxr.free-electrons.com/ident?i=fix_to_virt) in the linux kernel. `IDT` descriptor stored there, [Intel Trusted Execution Technology](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusted_Execution_Technology) UUID stored in the `fix-mapped` area started from `FIX_TBOOT_BASE` index, [Xen](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen) bootmap and many more... We already saw a little about `fix-mapped` addresses in the fifth [part](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-5.html) about of the linux kernel initialization. We use `fix-mapped` area in the early `ioremap` initialization. Let's look at it more closely and try to understand what `ioremap` is, how it is implemented in the kernel and how it is related to the `fix-mapped` addresses.
ioremap ioremap
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Linux kernel provides many different primitives to manage memory. For this moment we will touch `I/O memory`. Every device is controlled by reading/writing from/to its registers. For example a driver can turn off/on a device by writing to its registers or get the state of a device by reading from its registers. Besides registers, many devices have buffers where a driver can write something or read from there. As we know for this moment there are two ways to access device's registers and data buffers: The Linux kernel provides many different primitives to manage memory. For this moment we will touch `I/O memory`. Every device is controlled by reading/writing from/to its registers. For example a driver can turn off/on a device by writing to its registers or get the state of a device by reading from its registers. Besides registers, many devices have buffers where a driver can write something or read from there. As we know for this moment there are two ways to access device's registers and data buffers:
* through the I/O ports; * through the I/O ports;
* mapping of the all registers to the memory address space; * mapping of the all registers to the memory address space;
In the first case every control register of a device has a number of input and output port. And driver of a device can read from a port and write to it with two `in` and `out` instructions which we already saw. If you want to know about currently registered port regions, you can know they by accessing of `/proc/ioports`: In the first case every control register of a device has a number of input and output port. A device driver can read from a port and write to it with two `in` and `out` instructions which we already saw. If you want to know about currently registered port regions, you can learn about them by accessing `/proc/ioports`:
``` ```
$ cat /proc/ioports $ cat /proc/ioports
@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ $ cat /proc/ioports
... ...
``` ```
`/proc/ioporst` provides information about what driver used address of a `I/O` ports region. All of these memory regions, for example `0000-0cf7`, were claimed with the `request_region` function from the [include/linux/ioport.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/include/linux/ioport.h). Actually `request_region` is a macro which defied as: `/proc/ioports` provides information about which driver uses which address of a `I/O` port region. All of these memory regions, for example `0000-0cf7`, were claimed with the `request_region` function from the [include/linux/ioport.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/include/linux/ioport.h). Actually `request_region` is a macro which is defined as:
```C ```C
#define request_region(start,n,name) __request_region(&ioport_resource, (start), (n), (name), 0) #define request_region(start,n,name) __request_region(&ioport_resource, (start), (n), (name), 0)
@ -131,7 +131,7 @@ As we can see it takes three parameters:
* `n` - length of region; * `n` - length of region;
* `name` - name of requester. * `name` - name of requester.
`request_region` allocates `I/O` port region. Very often `check_region` function is called before the `request_region` to check that the given address range is available and `release_region` to release memory region. `request_region` returns pointer to the `resource` structure. `resource` structure presents abstraction for a tree-like subset of system resources. We already saw `resource` structure in the firth part about kernel [initialization](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-5.html) process and it looks as: `request_region` allocates an `I/O` port region. Very often the `check_region` function is called before the `request_region` to check that the given address range is available and the `release_region` function to release the memory region. `request_region` returns a pointer to the `resource` structure. The `resource` structure represents an abstraction for a tree-like subset of system resources. We already saw the `resource` structure in the fifth part of the kernel [initialization](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-5.html) process and it looks as follows:
```C ```C
struct resource { struct resource {
@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ struct resource {
}; };
``` ```
and contains start and end addresses of the resource, name, etc. Every `resource` structure contains pointers to the `parent`, `sibling` and `child` resources. As it has parent and childs, it means that every subset of resources has root `resource` structure. For example, for `I/O` ports it is `ioport_resource` structure: and contains start and end addresses of the resource, the name, etc. Every `resource` structure contains pointers to the `parent`, `sibling` and `child` resources. As it has a parent and a childs, it means that every subset of resources has root `resource` structure. For example, for `I/O` ports it is the `ioport_resource` structure:
```C ```C
struct resource ioport_resource = { struct resource ioport_resource = {
@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ struct resource ioport_resource = {
EXPORT_SYMBOL(ioport_resource); EXPORT_SYMBOL(ioport_resource);
``` ```
Or for `iomem`, it is `iomem_resource` structure: Or for `iomem`, it is the `iomem_resource` structure:
```C ```C
struct resource iomem_resource = { struct resource iomem_resource = {
@ -166,13 +166,13 @@ struct resource iomem_resource = {
}; };
``` ```
As I wrote about `request_regions` is used for registering of I/O port region and this macro is used in many [places](http://lxr.free-electrons.com/ident?i=request_region) in the kernel. For example let's look at [drivers/char/rtc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/char/rtc.c). This source code file provides [Real Time Clock](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_clock) interface in the linux kernel. As every kernel module, `rtc` module contains `module_init` definition: As I have mentioned before, `request_regions` is used to register I/O port regions and this macro is used in many [places](http://lxr.free-electrons.com/ident?i=request_region) in the kernel. For example let's look at [drivers/char/rtc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/char/rtc.c). This source code file provides the [Real Time Clock](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_clock) interface in the linux kernel. As every kernel module, `rtc` module contains `module_init` definition:
```C ```C
module_init(rtc_init); module_init(rtc_init);
``` ```
where `rtc_init` is `rtc` initialization function. This function is defined in the same `rtc.c` source code file. In the `rtc_init` function we can see a couple calls of the `rtc_request_region` functions, which wrap `request_region` for example: where `rtc_init` is the `rtc` initialization function. This function is defined in the same `rtc.c` source code file. In the `rtc_init` function we can see a couple of calls to the `rtc_request_region` functions, which wrap `request_region` for example:
```C ```C
r = rtc_request_region(RTC_IO_EXTENT); r = rtc_request_region(RTC_IO_EXTENT);
@ -184,25 +184,25 @@ where `rtc_request_region` calls:
r = request_region(RTC_PORT(0), size, "rtc"); r = request_region(RTC_PORT(0), size, "rtc");
``` ```
Here `RTC_IO_EXTENT` is a size of memory region and it is `0x8`, `"rtc"` is a name of region and `RTC_PORT` is: Here `RTC_IO_EXTENT` is the size of the memory region and it is `0x8`, `"rtc"` is the name of the region and `RTC_PORT` is:
```C ```C
#define RTC_PORT(x) (0x70 + (x)) #define RTC_PORT(x) (0x70 + (x))
``` ```
So with the `request_region(RTC_PORT(0), size, "rtc")` we register memory region, started at `0x70` and with size `0x8`. Let's look on the `/proc/ioports`: So with the `request_region(RTC_PORT(0), size, "rtc")` we register a memory region that starts at `0x70` and and has a size of `0x8`. Let's look at `/proc/ioports`:
``` ```
~$ sudo cat /proc/ioports | grep rtc ~$ sudo cat /proc/ioports | grep rtc
0070-0077 : rtc0 0070-0077 : rtc0
``` ```
So, we got it! Ok, it was ports. The second way is use of `I/O` memory. As I wrote above this way is mapping of control registers and memory of a device to the memory address space. `I/O` memory is a set of contiguous addresses which are provided by a device to CPU through a bus. All memory-mapped I/O addresses are not used by the kernel directly. There is a special `ioremap` function which allows us to covert the physical address on a bus to the kernel virtual address or in another words `ioremap` maps I/O physical memory region to access it from the kernel. The `ioremap` function takes two parameters: So, we got it! Ok, that was it for the I/O ports. The second way to communicate with drivers is through the use of `I/O` memory. As I have mentioned above this works by mapping the control registers and the memory of a device to the memory address space. `I/O` memory is a set of contiguous addresses which are provided by a device to the CPU through a bus. None of the memory-mapped I/O addresses are used by the kernel directly. There is a special `ioremap` function which allows us to convert the physical address on a bus to a kernel virtual address. In other words, `ioremap` maps I/O physical memory regions to make them accessible from the kernel. The `ioremap` function takes two parameters:
* start of the memory region; * start of the memory region;
* size of the memory region; * size of the memory region;
I/O memory mapping API provides functions for checking, requesting and release of a memory region as I/O ports API. There are three functions for it: The I/O memory mapping API provides functions to check, request and release memory regions as I/O memory. There are three functions for that:
* `request_mem_region` * `request_mem_region`
* `release_mem_region` * `release_mem_region`
@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ e0000000-feafffff : PCI Bus 0000:00
... ...
``` ```
Part of these addresses is from the call of the `e820_reserve_resources` function. We can find call of this function in the [arch/x86/kernel/setup.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/kernel/setup.c) and the function itself is defined in the [arch/x86/kernel/e820.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/kernel/e820.c). `e820_reserve_resources` goes through the [e820](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E820) map and inserts memory regions to the root `iomem` resource structure. All `e820` memory regions which will be inserted to the `iomem` resource have following types: Part of these addresses are from the call of the `e820_reserve_resources` function. We can find a call to this function in the [arch/x86/kernel/setup.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/kernel/setup.c) and the function itself is defined in [arch/x86/kernel/e820.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/kernel/e820.c). `e820_reserve_resources` goes through the [e820](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E820) map and inserts memory regions into the root `iomem` resource structure. All `e820` memory regions which are inserted into the `iomem` resource have the following types:
```C ```C
static inline const char *e820_type_to_string(int e820_type) static inline const char *e820_type_to_string(int e820_type)
@ -256,13 +256,13 @@ static inline const char *e820_type_to_string(int e820_type)
and we can see them in the `/proc/iomem` (read above). and we can see them in the `/proc/iomem` (read above).
Now let's try to understand how `ioremap` works. We already know a little about `ioremap`, we saw it in the fifth [part](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-5.html) about linux kernel initialization. If you have read this part, you can remember the call of the `early_ioremap_init` function from the [arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c). Initialization of the `ioremap` is split inn two parts: there is the early part which we can use before the normal `ioremap` is available and the normal `ioremap` which is available after `vmalloc` initialization and call of the `paging_init`. We do not know anything about `vmalloc` for now, so let's consider early initialization of the `ioremap`. First of all `early_ioremap_init` checks that `fixmap` is aligned on page middle directory boundary: Now let's try to understand how `ioremap` works. We already know a little about `ioremap`, we saw it in the fifth [part](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-5.html) about linux kernel initialization. If you have read this part, you can remember the call of the `early_ioremap_init` function from the [arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c). Initialization of the `ioremap` is split into two parts: there is the early part which we can use before the normal `ioremap` is available and the normal `ioremap` which is available after `vmalloc` initialization and the call of `paging_init`. We do not know anything about `vmalloc` for now, so let's consider early initialization of the `ioremap`. First of all `early_ioremap_init` checks that `fixmap` is aligned on page middle directory boundary:
```C ```C
BUILD_BUG_ON((fix_to_virt(0) + PAGE_SIZE) & ((1 << PMD_SHIFT) - 1)); BUILD_BUG_ON((fix_to_virt(0) + PAGE_SIZE) & ((1 << PMD_SHIFT) - 1));
``` ```
more about `BUILD_BUG_ON` you can read in the first part about [Linux Kernel initialization](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-1.html). So `BUILD_BUG_ON` macro raises compilation error if the given expression is true. In the next step after this check, we can see call of the `early_ioremap_setup` function from the [mm/early_ioremap.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/mm/early_ioremap.c). This function presents generic initialization of the `ioremap`. `early_ioremap_setup` function fills the `slot_virt` array with the virtual addresses of the early fixmaps. All early fixmaps are after `__end_of_permanent_fixed_addresses` in memory. They are stats from the `FIX_BITMAP_BEGIN` (top) and ends with `FIX_BITMAP_END` (down). Actually there are `512` temporary boot-time mappings, used by early `ioremap`: more about `BUILD_BUG_ON` you can read in the first part about [Linux Kernel initialization](http://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-1.html). So `BUILD_BUG_ON` macro raises a compilation error if the given expression is true. In the next step after this check, we can see call of the `early_ioremap_setup` function from the [mm/early_ioremap.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/mm/early_ioremap.c). This function presents generic initialization of the `ioremap`. `early_ioremap_setup` function fills the `slot_virt` array with the virtual addresses of the early fixmaps. All early fixmaps are after `__end_of_permanent_fixed_addresses` in memory. They start at `FIX_BITMAP_BEGIN` (top) and end with `FIX_BITMAP_END` (down). Actually there are `512` temporary boot-time mappings, used by early `ioremap`:
``` ```
#define NR_FIX_BTMAPS 64 #define NR_FIX_BTMAPS 64
@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ static unsigned long prev_size[FIX_BTMAPS_SLOTS] __initdata;
static unsigned long slot_virt[FIX_BTMAPS_SLOTS] __initdata; static unsigned long slot_virt[FIX_BTMAPS_SLOTS] __initdata;
``` ```
`slot_virt` contains virtual addresses of the `fix-mapped` areas, `prev_map` array contains addresses of the early ioremap areas. Note that I wrote above: `Actually there are 512 temporary boot-time mappings, used by early ioremap` and you can see that all arrays defined with the `__initdata` attribute which means that this memory will be released after kernel initialization process. After `early_ioremap_setup` finished its work, we're getting page middle directory where early ioremap begins with the `early_ioremap_pmd` function which just gets the base address of the page global directory and calculates the page middle directory for the given address: `slot_virt` contains the virtual addresses of the `fix-mapped` areas, `prev_map` array contains addresses of the early ioremap areas. Note that I wrote above: `Actually there are 512 temporary boot-time mappings, used by early ioremap` and you can see that all arrays are defined with the `__initdata` attribute which means that this memory will be released after the kernel initialization process. After `early_ioremap_setup` has finished its work, we're getting page middle directory where early ioremap begins with the `early_ioremap_pmd` function which just gets the base address of the page global directory and calculates the page middle directory for the given address:
```C ```C
static inline pmd_t * __init early_ioremap_pmd(unsigned long addr) static inline pmd_t * __init early_ioremap_pmd(unsigned long addr)
@ -307,7 +307,7 @@ static inline pmd_t * __init early_ioremap_pmd(unsigned long addr)
} }
``` ```
After this we fills `bm_pte` (early ioremap page table entries) with zeros and call the `pmd_populate_kernel` function: After this we fill `bm_pte` (early ioremap page table entries) with zeros and call the `pmd_populate_kernel` function:
```C ```C
pmd = early_ioremap_pmd(fix_to_virt(FIX_BTMAP_BEGIN)); pmd = early_ioremap_pmd(fix_to_virt(FIX_BTMAP_BEGIN));
@ -325,7 +325,7 @@ pmd_populate_kernel(&init_mm, pmd, bm_pte);
static pte_t bm_pte[PAGE_SIZE/sizeof(pte_t)] __page_aligned_bss; static pte_t bm_pte[PAGE_SIZE/sizeof(pte_t)] __page_aligned_bss;
``` ```
The `pmd_popularte_kernel` function defined in the [arch/x86/include/asm/pgalloc.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/include/asm/pgalloc.) and populates given page middle directory (`pmd`) with the given page table entries (`bm_pte`): The `pmd_populate_kernel` function is defined in the [arch/x86/include/asm/pgalloc.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/include/asm/pgalloc.) and populates the page middle directory (`pmd`) provided as an argument with the given page table entries (`bm_pte`):
```C ```C
static inline void pmd_populate_kernel(struct mm_struct *mm, static inline void pmd_populate_kernel(struct mm_struct *mm,
@ -356,18 +356,18 @@ That's all. Early `ioremap` is ready to use. There are a couple of checks in the
Use of early ioremap Use of early ioremap
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As early `ioremap` is setup, we can use it. It provides two functions: As soon as early `ioremap` has been setup successfully, we can use it. It provides two functions:
* early_ioremap * early_ioremap
* early_iounmap * early_iounmap
for mapping/unmapping of IO physical address to virtual address. Both functions depends on `CONFIG_MMU` configuration option. [Memory management unit](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_management_unit) is a special block of memory management. Main purpose of this block is translation physical addresses to virtual addresses. Technically memory management unit knows about high-level page table address (`pgd`) from the `cr3` control register. If `CONFIG_MMU` options is set to `n`, `early_ioremap` just returns the given physical address and `early_iounmap` does not nothing. In other way, if `CONFIG_MMU` option is set to `y`, `early_ioremap` calls `__early_ioremap` which takes three parameters: for mapping/unmapping of I/O physical address to virtual address. Both functions depend on the `CONFIG_MMU` configuration option. [Memory management unit](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_management_unit) is a special block of memory management. The main purpose of this block is the translation of physical addresses to virtual addresses. The memory management unit knows about the high-level page table addresses (`pgd`) from the `cr3` control register. If `CONFIG_MMU` options is set to `n`, `early_ioremap` just returns the given physical address and `early_iounmap` does nothing. If `CONFIG_MMU` option is set to `y`, `early_ioremap` calls `__early_ioremap` which takes three parameters:
* `phys_addr` - base physical address of the `I/O` memory region to map on virtual addresses; * `phys_addr` - base physical address of the `I/O` memory region to map on virtual addresses;
* `size` - size of the `I/O` memory region; * `size` - size of the `I/O` memory region;
* `prot` - page table entry bits. * `prot` - page table entry bits.
First of all in the `__early_ioremap`, we goes through the all early ioremap fixmap slots and check first free are in the `prev_map` array and remember it's number in the `slot` variable and set up size as we found it: First of all in the `__early_ioremap`, we go through all early ioremap fixmap slots and search for the first free one in the `prev_map` array. When we found it we remember its number in the `slot` variable and set up size:
```C ```C
slot = -1; slot = -1;
@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ nrpages = size >> PAGE_SHIFT;
idx = FIX_BTMAP_BEGIN - NR_FIX_BTMAPS*slot; idx = FIX_BTMAP_BEGIN - NR_FIX_BTMAPS*slot;
``` ```
Now we can fill `fix-mapped` area with the given physical addresses. Every iteration in the loop, we call `__early_set_fixmap` function from the [arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c), increase given physical address on page size which is `4096` bytes and update `addresses` index and number of pages: Now we can fill `fix-mapped` area with the given physical addresses. On every iteration in the loop, we call the `__early_set_fixmap` function from the [arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/mm/ioremap.c), increase the given physical address by the page size which is `4096` bytes and update the `addresses` index and the number of pages:
```C ```C
while (nrpages > 0) { while (nrpages > 0) {
@ -423,7 +423,7 @@ The `__early_set_fixmap` function gets the page table entry (stored in the `bm_p
pte = early_ioremap_pte(addr); pte = early_ioremap_pte(addr);
``` ```
In the next step of the `early_ioremap_pte` we check the given page flags with the `pgprot_val` macro and calls `set_pte` or `pte_clear` depends on it: In the next step of `early_ioremap_pte` we check the given page flags with the `pgprot_val` macro and call `set_pte` or `pte_clear` depending on the flags given:
```C ```C
if (pgprot_val(flags)) if (pgprot_val(flags))
@ -438,13 +438,13 @@ As you can see above, we passed `FIXMAP_PAGE_IO` as flags to the `__early_iorema
(__PAGE_KERNEL_EXEC | _PAGE_NX) (__PAGE_KERNEL_EXEC | _PAGE_NX)
``` ```
flags, so we call `set_pte` function for setting page table entry which works in the same manner as `set_pmd` but for PTEs (read above about it). As we set all `PTEs` in the loop, we can see the call of the `__flush_tlb_one` function: flags, so we call `set_pte` function to set the page table entry which works in the same manner as `set_pmd` but for PTEs (read above about it). As we have set all `PTEs` in the loop, we can now take a look at the call of the `__flush_tlb_one` function:
```C ```C
__flush_tlb_one(addr); __flush_tlb_one(addr);
``` ```
This function is defined in the [arch/x86/include/asm/tlbflush.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master) and calls `__flush_tlb_single` or `__flush_tlb` depends on value of the `cpu_has_invlpg`: This function is defined in [arch/x86/include/asm/tlbflush.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master) and calls `__flush_tlb_single` or `__flush_tlb` depending on the value of `cpu_has_invlpg`:
```C ```C
static inline void __flush_tlb_one(unsigned long addr) static inline void __flush_tlb_one(unsigned long addr)
@ -456,13 +456,13 @@ static inline void __flush_tlb_one(unsigned long addr)
} }
``` ```
`__flush_tlb_one` function invalidates given address in the [TLB](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_lookaside_buffer). As you just saw we updated paging structure, but `TLB` is not informed of the changes, that's why we need to do it manually. There are two ways to do it. First is update `cr3` control register and `__flush_tlb` function does this: The `__flush_tlb_one` function invalidates the given address in the [TLB](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_lookaside_buffer). As you just saw we updated the paging structure, but `TLB` is not informed of the changes, that's why we need to do it manually. There are two ways to do it. The first is to update the `cr3` control register and the `__flush_tlb` function does this:
```C ```C
native_write_cr3(native_read_cr3()); native_write_cr3(native_read_cr3());
``` ```
The second method is to use `invlpg` instruction to invalidates `TLB` entry. Let's look on `__flush_tlb_one` implementation. As you can see first of all it checks `cpu_has_invlpg` which defined as: The second method is to use the `invlpg` instruction to invalidate the `TLB` entry. Let's look at the `__flush_tlb_one` implementation. As you can see, first of all the function checks `cpu_has_invlpg` which is defined as:
```C ```C
#if defined(CONFIG_X86_INVLPG) || defined(CONFIG_X86_64) #if defined(CONFIG_X86_INVLPG) || defined(CONFIG_X86_64)
@ -472,7 +472,7 @@ The second method is to use `invlpg` instruction to invalidates `TLB` entry. Let
#endif #endif
``` ```
If a CPU support `invlpg` instruction, we call the `__flush_tlb_single` macro which expands to the call of the `__native_flush_tlb_single`: If a CPU supports the `invlpg` instruction, we call the `__flush_tlb_single` macro which expands to the call of `__native_flush_tlb_single`:
```C ```C
static inline void __native_flush_tlb_single(unsigned long addr) static inline void __native_flush_tlb_single(unsigned long addr)
@ -481,7 +481,7 @@ static inline void __native_flush_tlb_single(unsigned long addr)
} }
``` ```
or call `__flush_tlb` which just updates `cr3` register as we saw it above. After this step execution of the `__early_set_fixmap` function is finished and we can back to the `__early_ioremap` implementation. As we have set fixmap area for the given address, we need to save the base virtual address of the I/O Re-mapped area in the `prev_map` with the `slot` index: or call `__flush_tlb` which just updates the `cr3` register as we have seen. After this step execution of the `__early_set_fixmap` function is finished and we can go back to the `__early_ioremap` implementation. When we have set up the fixmap area for the given address, we need to save the base virtual address of the I/O Re-mapped area in the `prev_map` using the `slot` index:
```C ```C
prev_map[slot] = (void __iomem *)(offset + slot_virt[slot]); prev_map[slot] = (void __iomem *)(offset + slot_virt[slot]);
@ -489,13 +489,13 @@ prev_map[slot] = (void __iomem *)(offset + slot_virt[slot]);
and return it. and return it.
The second function is - `early_iounmap` - unmaps an `I/O` memory region. This function takes two parameters: base address and size of a `I/O` region and generally looks very similar on `early_ioremap`. It also goes through fixmap slots and looks for slot with the given address. After this it gets the index of the fixmap slot and calls `__late_clear_fixmap` or `__early_set_fixmap` depends on `after_paging_init` value. It calls `__early_set_fixmap` with on difference then it does `early_ioremap`: it passes `zero` as physical address. And in the end it sets address of the I/O memory region to `NULL`: The second function, `early_iounmap`, unmaps an `I/O` memory region. This function takes two parameters: base address and size of a `I/O` region and generally looks very similar to `early_ioremap`. It also goes through fixmap slots and looks for a slot with the given address. After that, it gets the index of the fixmap slot and calls `__late_clear_fixmap` or `__early_set_fixmap` depending on the `after_paging_init` value. It calls `__early_set_fixmap` with one difference to how `early_ioremap` does it: `early_iounmap` passes `zero` as physical address. And in the end it sets the address of the I/O memory region to `NULL`:
```C ```C
prev_map[slot] = NULL; prev_map[slot] = NULL;
``` ```
That's all about `fixmaps` and `ioremap`. Of course this part does not cover full features of the `ioremap`, it was only early ioremap, but there is also normal ioremap. But we need to know more things before it. That's all about `fixmaps` and `ioremap`. Of course this part does not cover all features of `ioremap`, only early ioremap but there is also normal ioremap. But we need to know more things before we study that in more detail.
So, this is the end! So, this is the end!