@ -318,11 +318,11 @@ The `Completely Fair Scheduler` supports following `normal` or in other words `n
The `SCHED_NORMAL` is used for the most normal applications, the amount of cpu each process consumes is mostly determined by the [nice](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_%28Unix%29) value, the `SCHED_BATCH` used for the 100% non-interactive tasks and the `SCHED_IDLE` runs tasks only when the processor has no task to run besides this task.
The `real-time` policies are also supported for the time-critical applications: `SCHED_FIFO` and `SCHED_RR`. If you've read something about the Linux kernel scheduler, you can know that it is modular. It means that it supports different algorithms to schedule different types of processes. Usually this modularity is called `scheduler classes`. These modules encapsulate scheduling policy details and are handled by the scheduler core without knowing too much about them.
The `real-time` policies are also supported for the time-critical applications: `SCHED_FIFO` and `SCHED_RR`. If you've read something about the Linux kernel scheduler, you can know that it is modular. That means it supports different algorithms to schedule different types of processes. Usually this modularity is called `scheduler classes`. These modules encapsulate scheduling policy details and are handled by the scheduler core without knowing too much about them.
Now let's get back to the our code and look on the two configuration options: `CONFIG_FAIR_GROUP_SCHED` and `CONFIG_RT_GROUP_SCHED`. The least unit which scheduler operates is an individual task or thread. But a process is not only one type of entities of which the scheduler may operate. Both of these options provides support for group scheduling. The first one option provides support for group scheduling with`completely fair scheduler` policies and the second with `real-time` policies respectively.
Now let's get back to the our code and look on the two configuration options: `CONFIG_FAIR_GROUP_SCHED` and `CONFIG_RT_GROUP_SCHED`. The smallest unit that the scheduler works with is an individual task or thread. However, a process is not the only type of entity that the scheduler can operate with. Both of these options provide support for group scheduling. The first option provides support for group scheduling with the`completely fair scheduler` policies and the second with the`real-time` policies respectively.
In simple words, group scheduling is a feature that allows us to schedule a set of tasks as if a single task. For example, if you create a group with two tasks on the group, then this group is just like one normal task, from the kernel perspective. After a group is scheduled, the scheduler will pick a task from this group and it will be scheduled inside the group. So, such mechanism allows us to build hierarchies and manage their resources. Although a minimal unit of scheduling is a process, the Linux kernel scheduler does not use `task_struct` structure under the hood. There is special `sched_entity` structure that is used by the Linux kernel scheduler as scheduling unit.
In simple words, group scheduling is a feature that allows us to schedule a set of tasks as if they were a single task. For example, if you create a group with two tasks on the group, then this group is just like one normal task, from the kernel perspective. After a group is scheduled, the scheduler will pick a task from this group and it will be scheduled inside the group. So, such mechanism allows us to build hierarchies and manage their resources. Although a minimal unit of scheduling is a process, the Linux kernel scheduler does not use `task_struct` structure under the hood. There is special `sched_entity` structure that is used by the Linux kernel scheduler as scheduling unit.
So, the current goal is to calculate a space to allocate for a `sched_entity(ies)` of the root task group and we do it two times with:
@ -52,13 +52,13 @@ As mentioned earlier, an interrupt can occur at any time for a reason which the
* `Traps`
* `Aborts`
A `fault` is an exception reported before the execution of a "faulty" instruction (which can then be corrected). If correct, it allows the interrupted program to be resume.
A `fault` is an exception reported before the execution of a "faulty" instruction (which can then be corrected). If correct, it allows the interrupted program to resume.
Next a `trap` is an exception which is reported immediately following the execution of the `trap` instruction. Traps also allow the interrupted program to be continued just as a `fault` does.
Next a `trap` is an exception, which is reported immediately following the execution of the `trap` instruction. Traps also allow the interrupted program to be continued just as a `fault` does.
Finally an `abort` is an exception that does not always report the exact instruction which caused the exception and does not allow the interrupted program to be resumed.
Finally, an `abort` is an exception that does not always report the exact instruction which caused the exception and does not allow the interrupted program to be resumed.
Also we already know from the previous [part](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.html) that interrupts can be classified as `maskable` and `non-maskable`. Maskable interrupts are interrupts which can be blocked with the two following instructions for `x86_64` - `sti` and `cli`. We can find them in the Linux kernel source code:
Also, we already know from the previous [part](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.html) that interrupts can be classified as `maskable` and `non-maskable`. Maskable interrupts are interrupts which can be blocked with the two following instructions for `x86_64` - `sti` and `cli`. We can find them in the Linux kernel source code:
```C
static inline void native_irq_disable(void)
@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ As we can see, `IDT` entry on the diagram consists of the following fields:
* `0-15` bits - offset from the segment selector which is used by the processor as the base address of the entry point of the interrupt handler;
* `16-31` bits - base address of the segment select which contains the entry point of the interrupt handler;
* `IST` - a new special mechanism in the `x86_64`, will see it later;
* `IST` - a new special mechanism in the `x86_64`, which is described below;
* `DPL` - Descriptor Privilege Level;
* `P` - Segment Present flag;
* `48-63` bits - the second part of the handler base address;
@ -466,7 +466,7 @@ When an interrupt or an exception occurs, the new `ss` selector is forced to `NU
+---------------+
```
If the `IST` field in the interrupt gate is not `0`, we read the `IST` pointer into `rsp`. If the interrupt vector number has an error code associated with it, we then push the error code onto the stack. If the interrupt vector number has no error code, we go ahead and push the dummy error code on to the stack. We need to do this to ensure stack consistency. Next, we load the segment-selector field from the gate descriptor into the CS register and must verify that the target code-segment is a 64-bit mode code segment by the checking bit `21` i.e. the `L` bit in the `Global Descriptor Table`. Finally we load the offset field from the gate descriptor into `rip` which will be the entry-point of the interrupt handler. After this the interrupt handler begins to execute and when the interrupt handler finishes its execution, it must return control to the interrupted process with the `iret` instruction. The `iret` instruction unconditionally pops the stack pointer (`ss:rsp`) to restore the stack of the interrupted process and does not depend on the `cpl` change.
If the `IST` field in the interrupt gate is not `0`, we read the `IST` pointer into `rsp`. If the interrupt vector number has an error code associated with it, we then push the error code onto the stack. If the interrupt vector number has no error code, we go ahead and push the dummy error code on to the stack. We need to do this to ensure stack consistency. Next, we load the segment-selector field from the gate descriptor into the CS register and must verify that the target code-segment is a 64-bit mode code segment by the checking bit `21` i.e. the `L` bit in the `Global Descriptor Table`. Finally, we load the offset field from the gate descriptor into `rip` which will be the entry-point of the interrupt handler. After this the interrupt handler begins to execute and when the interrupt handler finishes its execution, it must return control to the interrupted process with the `iret` instruction. The `iret` instruction unconditionally pops the stack pointer (`ss:rsp`) to restore the stack of the interrupted process and does not depend on the `cpl` change.
It fills `early_idt_handler_array` with the `.rept NUM_EXCEPTION_VECTORS` and contains entry of the `early_make_pgtable` interrupt handler (more about its implementation you can read in the part about [Early interrupt and exception handling](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-2.html)). For now we come to the end of the `x86_64` architecture-specific code and the next part is the generic kernel code. Of course you already can know that we will return to the architecture-specific code in the `setup_arch` function and other places, but this is the end of the `x86_64` early code.
It fills `early_idt_handler_array` with the `.rept NUM_EXCEPTION_VECTORS` and contains entry of the `early_make_pgtable` interrupt handler (you can read more about its implementation in the part about [Early interrupt and exception handling](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Initialization/linux-initialization-2.html)). For now, we have reached the end of the x86_64 architecture-specific code and the next part is the generic kernel code. You probably already know, that we will return to the architecture-specific code in the `setup_arch` function and other places, but this is the end of the `x86_64` early code.
This part opens a new chapter in the [linux-insides](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/) book. Timers and time management related stuff was described in the previous [chapter](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Timers/index.html). Now time to go next. As you may understand from the part's title, this chapter will describe [synchronization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronization_%28computer_science%29) primitives in the Linux kernel.
This part opens a new chapter in the [linux-insides](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/) book. Timers and time management related stuff was described in the previous [chapter](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Timers/index.html). Now it's time to move on to the next topic. As you probably recognized from the title, this chapter will describe the [synchronization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronization_%28computer_science%29) primitives in the Linux kernel.
As always, before we will consider something synchronization related, we will try to know what `synchronization primitive` is in general. Actually, synchronization primitive is a software mechanism which provides the ability to two or more [parallel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing) processes or threads to not execute simultaneously on the same segment of a code. For example, let's look on the following piece of code:
As always, we will try to know what a `synchronization primitive` in general is before we deal with any synchronization-related issues. Actually, a synchronization primitive is a software mechanism, that ensures that two or more [parallel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing) processes or threads are not running simultaneously on the same code segment. For example, let's look at the following piece of code:
0xAX
4 years ago
committed by