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linux-internals linux-internals
=============== ===============
A little bit about a linux kernel Series of posts about linux kernel.
**Goal is simple** - to share my modest knowledge about linux kernel internals and help people who interested in low-level stuff and linux kernel as me.
**Questions/Suggestions**: Feel free about any questions or suggestsions by pinging me at twitter [@0xAX](https://twitter.com/0xAX), adding [issue](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-internals/issues/new) or just drop me [email](anotherworldofworld@gmail.com).
**Contributions**: Feel free to create issues if my English is too bad or create pull-requests.
Author
---------------
[@0xAX](https://twitter.com/0xAX)

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GNU/Linux kernel internals
================================================================================
Linux kernel bootstrap process. Part 1.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If you read my previous blog [posts](http://0xax.blogspot.com/search/label/asm), you can note that sometime ago I have started to get involved low-level programming. I wrote some posts about x86_64 assembly programming for Linux. In the same time I started to dive into GNU/Linux kernel source code. It is very interesting for me to understand how low-level things works, how programs runs on my computer, how they located in memory, how kernel manages processes and memory, how network stack works on low-level and many many other things. I decided to write yet another series of posts about GNU/Linux kernel for **x86_64**.
Note, that I'm not professional kernel hacker and I don't write code for kernel at work, just a hobby. I just like low-level stuff and it is interesting to me how these things works. So if you will meet any confusing, you will have a questions or suggestions, ping me in twitter [0xAX](https://twitter.com/0xAX), drop me [email](anotherworldofworld@gmail.com) or just create [issue](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-internals/issues/new), I'm very appreciate it. All posts will be also accessible at [linux-internals](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-internals) and if you will find something wrong with my English or post content feel free to send pull request.
*Note that it isn't official documentation, just learning and knowledge sharing.*
**Required knowledge**
* Understanding C code
* Understanding assembly code (AT&T syntax)
Anyway if you just started to learn some tools, I will try to explain some parts during this and following posts. Ok, little introduction finished and now we can start to dive into kernel and low-level stuff.
All code is actual for kernel - 3.18, if there will be changes, I will update posts.
Magic power button, what's next?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Despite that it is series of posts about linux kernel, we will not start from kernel code (at least in this paragraph). Ok, you pressed magic power button on your laptop or desktop computer and it started to work. After this mother board sends signal to the [power supply](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply) which provides computer with the proper amount of electricity. Once motherboard received [power good signal](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_good_signal), it tries to run CPU. CPU resets all leftover data in it's register and setups predefined values for every register.
[80386](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386) and later CPUs defines following predifined data in CPU registers after computer resets:
```
IP 0xfff0
CS selector 0xf000
CS base 0xffff0000
```
Processor works in the [Real mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode) now and we need to make a little retreat for understanding memory segmentation in this mode. Real mode supported in all x86 compatible processors from [8086](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086) to modern intel 64 CPUs. 8086 processor had 20 bit addres bus, it means that it could work with 0-2^20 address space (1 MB). But it had only 16 bit registers, but with 16 bit registers maximum address is 2^16 or 0xffff (640 Kb). To use all of the address space was used memory segmentation. All memory was divided into small fixed-size segments by 65535 bytes or 64 Kb. Since we can not address memory behind 640 kb with 16 bit register, was coined another method to do it. Address consists of two parts: beginning address of segment and offset from the beginning of this segment. For getting physical address of memory need to multiply segment part on 16 and add offset part:
```
PhysicalAddress = Segment * 16 + Offset
```
For example `CS:IP` is `0x2000:0x0010`, physical address will be:
```python
>>> hex((0x2000 << 4) + 0x0010)
'0x20010'
```
But if we take the biggest segment part and offset: `0xffff:0xffff`, it will be:
```python
>>> hex((0xffff << 4) + 0xffff)
'0x10ffef'
```
which is 65519 bytes over first megabyte. Since only one megabite accessible in real mode, `0x10ffef` becomes `0x00ffef` with disabled [A20](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A20_line).
Ok, now we know about real mode and memory addressing, let's back to registers values after reset.
`CS` register has two parts: the visible segment selector and hidden base addres. We know predefined `CS` base and `IP` value, so our logical address will be:
```
0xffff0000:0xfff0
```
which we can translate to the physical address::
```python
>>> hex((0xffff000 << 4) + 0xfff0)
'0xfffffff0'
```
We get `fffffff0` which is 4GB - 16 bytes. This point is a - [Reset vector](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reset_vector). There is a first instruction at this memory location, which CPU executes after reset. It contains [jump](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JMP_%28x86_instruction%29) instruction which usually points to the BIOS entry point. For example if we'll look in [coreboot](http://www.coreboot.org/) source code, we will see it:
```assembly
.section ".reset"
.code16
.globl reset_vector
reset_vector:
.byte 0xe9
.int _start - ( . + 2 )
...
```
We can see here jump instruction [opcode](http://ref.x86asm.net/coder32.html#xE9) - 0xe9 to the address `_start - ( . + 2)`. And we can see that `reset` section is 16 bytes and starts at `0xfffffff0`:
```
SECTIONS {
_ROMTOP = 0xfffffff0;
. = _ROMTOP;
.reset . : {
*(.reset)
. = 15 ;
BYTE(0x00);
}
}
```
Now BIOS started to work, after all initializations, hardware checking, need to load operating system. BIOS tries to find bootable device, which contains boot sector. Boot sector is a first sector on device (512 bytes) and contains sequence of `0x55` and `0xaa` at 511 and 512 byte. For example:
```assembly
[BITS 16]
[ORG 0x7c00]
jmp boot
boot:
mov ah, 0x0e
mov bh, 0x00
mov bl, 0x07
mov al, !
int 0x10
jmp $
times 510-($-$$) db 0
db 0xaa
db 0x55
```
Build and run it with:
```
nasm -f bin boot.nasm && qemu-system-x86_64 boot
```
We will see:
![Simple bootloader which prints only `!`](http://oi60.tinypic.com/2qbwup0.jpg)
In this example we can see that this code will be executed in 16 bit real mode and started at 0x7c00 in memory. After the start it calls [0x10](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-0106.htm) interruption which just prints `!` symbol. It fills rest of 510 bytes with zeros and finish with two magic bytes 0xaa and 0x55.
Real world boot loader starts at the same point, ends with `0xaa55` bytes, but reads kernel code from device, loads it to memory, parses and passes boot parameters to kernel and etc... intead printing one symbol :) Ok, so, from this moment bios handed control to the operating system bootloader and we can go ahead.
**NOTE**: as you can read above CPU is in real mode. In real mode for calculating physical address of memory uses following form:
```
PhysicalAddress = Segment * 16 + Offset
```
as i wrote above. But we have only 16 bit general purpose registers. The maximum value of 16 bit register is: `0xffff`; So if we take the biggest values, it will be:
```python
>>> hex((0xffff * 16) + 0xffff)
'0x10ffef'
```
Where `0x10ffef` is equal to `1mb + 64kb - 16b`. But [8086](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086) processor which was first processor with Real mode had 20 address line, but `20^2 = 1048576.0` which is 1MB, it means that actually available memory ammount is 1MB.
General real mode memory map is:
```
0x00000000 - 0x000003FF - Real Mode Interrupt Vector Table
0x00000400 - 0x000004FF - BIOS Data Area
0x00000500 - 0x00007BFF - Unused
0x00007C00 - 0x00007DFF - Our Bootloader
0x00007E00 - 0x0009FFFF - Unused
0x000A0000 - 0x000BFFFF - Video RAM (VRAM) Memory
0x000B0000 - 0x000B7777 - Monochrome Video Memory
0x000B8000 - 0x000BFFFF - Color Video Memory
0x000C0000 - 0x000C7FFF - Video ROM BIOS
0x000C8000 - 0x000EFFFF - BIOS Shadow Area
0x000F0000 - 0x000FFFFF - System BIOS
```
But stop, at the begging of post written that first instruction executed by CPU located by `0xfffffff0` address, but it's much bigger than `0xffff` (1MB). How CPU can access it in real mode? As i write about and you can read in [coreboot](http://www.coreboot.org/Developer_Manual/Memory_map) documentation:
```
0xFFFE_0000 - 0xFFFF_FFFF: 128 kByte ROM mapped into address space
```
At the start of execution BIOS is not in RAM, it located in ROM.
Bootloader
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Now bios transfered control to the operating system bootlader and it needs to load operating system into the memory. There are a couple of bootloaders which can boot linux like: [Grub2](http://www.gnu.org/software/grub/), [syslinux](http://www.syslinux.org/wiki/index.php/The_Syslinux_Project) and etc... Linux kernel has [Boot protocol](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/x86/boot.txt) which describes how to load linux kernel.
Let us briefly consider how grub loads linux. GRUB2 execution starts from `grub-core/boot/i386/pc/boot.S`. It starts to load from device it's own kernel (not to be confused with linux kernel) and executes `grub_main` after successfully loading.
`grub_main` initializes console, gets base address for modules, sets root device, loads/parses grub configuration file, loads modules and etc... In the end of execution `grub_main` moves grub to normal mode. `grub_normal_execute` (from `grub-core/normal/main.c`) completes last preparation and shows menu for selecting operating system. When we pressed on one of grub menu entry, `grub_menu_execute_entry` begins to be executed, which executes grub `boot` command. It starts to boot operating system.
As we can read in the kernel boot protocol, bootloader must read and fill some fields of kernel setup header which starts at `0x01f1` offset from the kernel setup code. Kernel header [arch/x86/boot/header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S) starts from:
```assembly
.globl hdr
hdr:
setup_sects: .byte 0
root_flags: .word ROOT_RDONLY
syssize: .long 0
ram_size: .word 0
vid_mode: .word SVGA_MODE
root_dev: .word 0
boot_flag: .word 0xAA55
```
Bootloader must fill this and the rest of headers (only marked as `write` in the linux boot protocol, for example [this](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/x86/boot.txt#L354)) with gotten from command line or calculated values. We will not see description and explanation of all fields of kernel setup header, we will back to it when kernel will use it. Anyway you can find description of any field in the [boot protocol](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/x86/boot.txt#L156).
As we can see in kernel boot protocol, memory map will be following after kernel loading:
```shell
| Protected-mode kernel |
100000 +------------------------+
| I/O memory hole |
0A0000 +------------------------+
| Reserved for BIOS | Leave as much as possible unused
~ ~
| Command line | (Can also be below the X+10000 mark)
X+10000 +------------------------+
| Stack/heap | For use by the kernel real-mode code.
X+08000 +------------------------+
| Kernel setup | The kernel real-mode code.
| Kernel boot sector | The kernel legacy boot sector.
X +------------------------+
| Boot loader | <- Boot sector entry point 0x7C00
001000 +------------------------+
| Reserved for MBR/BIOS |
000800 +------------------------+
| Typically used by MBR |
000600 +------------------------+
| BIOS use only |
000000 +------------------------+
```
So after that bootloader trasfered control to the kernel it starts somewhere at:
```
0x1000 + X + sizeof(KernelBootSector) + 1
```
where `X` is the address kernel bootsector loaded. In my case `X` is `0x10000` (), we can see it in memory dump:
![kernel first address](http://oi57.tinypic.com/16bkco2.jpg)
Ok, bootloader loaded linux kernel into memory, filled header fields and jumped to it. Now we can move directly to the kernel setup code.
Start of kernel setup
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Finally we are in the kernel. Technically kernel didn't run yet, first of all need to setup kernel, memory manager, process manager and etc... Kernel setup execution starts from [arch/x86/boot/header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S) at the [_start](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L293). It is little strange for the first look, there are many instructions before it. Actually....
Much time ago linux had own bootloader, but now if you will run for example:
```
qemu-system-x86_64 vmlinuz-3.18-generic
```
You will see:
![Try vmlinuz in qemu](http://oi60.tinypic.com/r02xkz.jpg)
Actually `header.S` starts from [MZ](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_MZ_executable) (see image above), error message printing and following [PE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Executable) header:
```assembly
#ifdef CONFIG_EFI_STUB
# "MZ", MS-DOS header
.byte 0x4d
.byte 0x5a
#endif
...
...
...
pe_header:
.ascii "PE"
.word 0
```
It needs for loading operating system with [UEFI](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Extensible_Firmware_Interface). Here we will not see how it works (will look on it in the next parts).
So actual kernel setup entry point is:
```
// header.S line 292
.globl _start
_start:
```
Bootloader (grub2 and others) knows about this point (`0x200` offset from `MZ`) and makes a jump directly to this point, despite the fact that `header.S` starts from `.bstext` section which prints error message:
```
//
// arch/x86/boot/setup.ld
//
. = 0; // current position
.bstext : { *(.bstext) } // put .bstext section to position 0
.bsdata : { *(.bsdata) }
```
So kernel setup entry point is:
```assembly
.globl _start
_start:
.byte 0xeb
.byte start_of_setup-1f
1:
//
// rest of the header
//
```
Here we can see `jmp` instruction opcode - `0xeb` to the `start_of_setup-1f` point. `Nf` notation means following: `2f` refers to the next local `2:` label. In our case it is label `1` which goes right after jump. It contains rest of setup [header](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/Documentation/x86/boot.txt#L156) and right after setup header we can see `.entrytext` section which starts at `start_of_setup` label.
Actually it's first code which starts to executes besides previous jump instruction. After kernel setup got a control from bootloader, first `jmp` instruction located at `0x200` (first 512 bytes) offset from the start of kernel real mode. This we can read at linux kernel boot protocol and also see in grub2 source code:
```C
state.gs = state.fs = state.es = state.ds = state.ss = segment;
state.cs = segment + 0x20;
```
It means that segment registers will have following values after kernel setup starts to work:
```
fs = es = ds = ss = 0x1000
cs = 0x1020
```
for my case when kernel loaded at `0x10000`.
After jump to `start_of_setup`, needs to do following things:
* Be sure that all vale of all segement registers are equal
* Setup correct stack if need
* Setup [bss](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bss)
* Jump to C code at [main.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/main.c)
Let's look on implementation.
Segement registers align
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
First of all it insures that `ds` and `es` segment registers points to the same address and enables interruptions with `sti` instruction:
```assembly
movw %ds, %ax
movw %ax, %es
sti
```
As i wrote above, grub2 loads kernel setup code at `0x10000` address and `cs` at `0x0x1020` because execution doesn't start from the start of file, but from:
```
_start:
.byte 0xeb
.byte start_of_setup-1f
```
jump, which is 512 bytes offset from the [4d 5a](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L47). Also need to align `cs` from 0x10200 to 0x10000 as all another segement registers. After we'll setup stack:
```assembly
pushw %ds
pushw $6f
lretw
```
push `ds` value to stack, and address of [6](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L494) label and execute `lretw` instruction. When we call `lretw`, it loads address of `6` label to [instruction pointer](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_counter) register and `cs` with value of `ds`. After it we will have `ds` and `cs` with the same values.
Stack setup
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Actually almost all of the setup code is preparation for C language environment in the real mode. Next [step](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L467) is checking of `ss` register value and making of correct stack if `ss` is wrong:
```assembly
movw %ss, %dx
cmpw %ax, %dx
movw %sp, %dx
je 2f
```
Generally, it can be 3 different cases:
* `ss` has valid value 0x10000 (as all another segment registers besides `cs`)
* `ss` is invlalid and `CAN_USE_HEAP` flag is set (see below)
* `ss` is invlalid and `CAN_USE_HEAP` flag is not set (see below)
Let's look on all of these cases:
1. `ss` has a correct address (0x10000). In this way we go to [2](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L481) label:
```
2: andw $~3, %dx
jnz 3f
movw $0xfffc, %dx
3: movw %ax, %ss
movzwl %dx, %esp
sti
```
Here we can see aligning of `dx` (contains `sp` given by bootloader) to 4 bytes and checking that it is not zero. If it is zero we put `0xfffc` (4 byte aligned address before maximum segment size - 64 Kb) to `dx`. If it is not zero we continue to use `sp` given by bootloader (0xf7f4 in my case). After this we put `ax` value to `ss` which stores correct segment address `0x10000` and set up correct `sp`. After it we have correct stack:
![stack](http://oi58.tinypic.com/16iwcis.jpg)
2. In the second case (`ss` != `ds`), first of all put [_end](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/setup.ld#L52) (address of end of setup code) value at the `dx`. And check `loadflags` header field with `testb` instruction, can we use heap or not. [loadflags](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L321) is a bitmask header which defined as:
```C
#define LOADED_HIGH (1<<0)
#define QUIET_FLAG (1<<5)
#define KEEP_SEGMENTS (1<<6)
#define CAN_USE_HEAP (1<<7)
```
And as we can read in the boot protocol:
```
Field name: loadflags
This field is a bitmask.
Bit 7 (write): CAN_USE_HEAP
Set this bit to 1 to indicate that the value entered in the
heap_end_ptr is valid. If this field is clear, some setup code
functionality will be disabled.
```
If `CAN_USE_HEAP` bit set, put `heap_end_ptr` to `dx` which points to `_end` and add `STACK_SIZE` (minimal stack size - 512 bytes) to it. After this if `dx` is not carry jump to `2` (it will be not carry, dx = _end + 512) label as in previous case and make correct stack.
![stack](http://oi62.tinypic.com/dr7b5w.jpg)
3. The last case when `CAN_USE_HEAP` is not set, we just use minimal stack from `_end` to `_end + STACK_SIZE`:
![minimal stack](http://oi60.tinypic.com/28w051y.jpg)
Bss setup
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Last two steps before we can jump to see code need to setup [bss](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bss) and check magic signature. Signature checking:
```assembly
cmpl $0x5a5aaa55, setup_sig
jne setup_bad
```
just consists from comparing of [setup_sig](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/setup.ld#L39) and `0x5a5aaa55` number, and if they are not equal jump to error printing.
Ok now we have correct segment registers, stack, need only setup bss and jump to C code. Bss section used for storing statically allocated uninitialized data. Here is the code:
```assembly
movw $__bss_start, %di
movw $_end+3, %cx
xorl %eax, %eax
subw %di, %cx
shrw $2, %cx
rep; stosl
```
First of all we put [__bss_start](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/setup.ld#L47) address to `di` and `_end + 3` (+3 - align to 4 bytes) to `cx`. Clear `eax` register with `xor` instruction and calculate size of BSS section (put to `cx`). Devide `cx` by 4 and repeat `cx` times `stosl` instruction which stores value of `eax` (it is zero) and increase `di`by the size of `eax`. In this way, we write zeros from `__bss_start` to `_end`:
![bss](http://oi59.tinypic.com/29m2eyr.jpg)
Jump to main
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
That's all, we have stack, bss and now we can jump to `main` C function:
```assembly
calll main
```
which is in [arch/x86/boot/main.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/main.c). What will be there? We will see it in the next part.
Conclusion
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It is the end of the first part about linux kernel internals. If you will have a questions or suggestions, ping me in twitter [0xAX](https://twitter.com/0xAX), drop me [email](anotherworldofworld@gmail.com) or just create [issue](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-internals/issues/new). In next part we will see first C code which executes in linux kernel setup, implementation of memory routines as memset, memcpy, `earlyprintk` implementation and early console initialization and many more.
**Please note that English is not my first language, And I am really sorry for any inconvenience. If you will find any mistakes please send me PR to [linux-internals](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-internals).**
Links
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* [Intel 80386 programmer's reference manual 1986](http://css.csail.mit.edu/6.858/2014/readings/i386.pdf)
* [Minimal Boot Loader for Intel® Architecture](https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~410/doc/minimal_boot.pdf)
* [8086](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086)
* [80386](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386)
* [Reset vector](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reset_vector)
* [Real mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode)
* [Linux kernel boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt)
* [CoreBoot developer manual](http://www.coreboot.org/Developer_Manual)
* [Ralf Brown's Interrupt List](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/int.htm)
* [Power supply](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply)
* [Power good signal](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_good_signal)