Merge pull request #409 from kavi-nikhurpa/booting-fix

Fixed typos & edits in Booting

Booting/linux-bootstrap-1.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ Kernel booting process. Part 1.
 From the bootloader to the kernel
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
-If you have read my previous [blog posts](http://0xax.blogspot.com/search/label/asm), you can see that sometime ago I started to get involved with low-level programming. I wrote some posts about x86_64 assembly programming for Linux. At the same time, I started to dive into the Linux source code. I have a great interest in understanding how low-level things work, how programs run on my computer, how they are located in memory, how the kernel manages processes and memory, how the network stack works at a low level and many many other things. So, I decided to write yet another series of posts about the Linux kernel for **x86_64**.
+If you have read my previous [blog posts](http://0xax.blogspot.com/search/label/asm), you can see that sometime ago I started to get involve with low-level programming. I wrote some posts about x86_64 assembly programming for Linux. At the same time, I started to dive into the Linux source code. I have a great interest in understanding how low-level things work, how programs run on my computer, how they are located in memory, how the kernel manages processes and memory, how the network stack works at a low level and many many other things. So, I decided to write yet another series of posts about the Linux kernel for **x86_64**.
 
 Note that I'm not a professional kernel hacker and I don't write code for the kernel at work. It's just a hobby. I just like low-level stuff, and it is interesting for me to see how these things work. So if you notice anything confusing, or if you have any questions/remarks, ping me on twitter [0xAX](https://twitter.com/0xAX), drop me an [email](anotherworldofworld@gmail.com) or just create an [issue](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/issues/new). I appreciate it. All posts will also be accessible at [linux-insides](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides) and if you find something wrong with my English or the post content, feel free to send a pull request.
 
@@ -16,14 +16,14 @@ Note that I'm not a professional kernel hacker and I don't write code for the ke
 * Understanding C code
 * Understanding assembly code (AT&T syntax)
 
-Anyway, if you just start to learn some tools, I will try to explain some parts during this and the following posts. Ok, simple introduction finishes and now we can start to dive into the kernel and low-level stuff.
+Anyway, if you just start to learn some tools, I will try to explain some parts during this and the following posts. Alright, this is the end of simple introduction and now we can start to dive into the kernel and low-level stuff.
 
 All code is actually for kernel - 3.18. If there are changes, I will update the posts accordingly.
 
 The Magic Power Button, What happens next?
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
-Despite that this is a series of posts about the Linux kernel, we will not start from the kernel code (at least not in this paragraph). Ok, you press the magic power button on your laptop or desktop computer and it starts to work. After the motherboard sends a signal to the [power supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply), the power supply provides the computer with the proper amount of electricity. Once the motherboard receives the [power good signal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_good_signal), it tries to start the CPU. The CPU resets all leftover data in its registers and sets up predefined values for each of them.
+Although this is a series of posts about the Linux kernel, we will not start from the kernel code (at least not in this paragraph). Ok, you press the magic power button on your laptop or desktop computer and it starts to work. After the motherboard sends a signal to the [power supply](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply), the power supply provides the computer with the proper amount of electricity. Once the motherboard receives the [power good signal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_good_signal), it tries to start the CPU. The CPU resets all leftover data in its registers and sets up predefined values for each of them.
 
 
 [80386](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386) and later CPUs define the following predefined data in CPU registers after the computer resets:
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ CS selector 0xf000
 CS base     0xffff0000
 ```
 
-The processor starts working in [real mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode). Let's back up a little to try and understand memory segmentation in this mode. Real mode is supported on all x86-compatible processors, from the [8086](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086) all the way to the modern Intel 64-bit CPUs. The 8086 processor has a 20-bit address bus, which means that it could work with a 0-0x100000 address space (1 megabyte). But it only has 16-bit registers, and with 16-bit registers the maximum address is 2^16 - 1 or 0xffff (64 kilobytes). [Memory segmentation](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_segmentation) is used to make use of all the address space available. All memory is divided into small, fixed-size segments of 65536 bytes, or 64 KB. Since we cannot address memory above 64 KB with 16 bit registers, an alternate method is devised. An address consists of two parts: a segment selector which has an associated base address and an offset from this base address. In real mode, the associated base address of a segment selector is `Segment Selector * 16`. Thus, to get a physical address in memory, we need to multiply the segment selector part by 16 and add the offset part:
+The processor starts working in [real mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode). Let's back up a little and try to understand memory segmentation in this mode. Real mode is supported on all x86-compatible processors, from the [8086](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086) all the way to the modern Intel 64-bit CPUs. The 8086 processor has a 20-bit address bus, which means that it could work with a 0-0x100000 address space (1 megabyte). But it only has 16-bit registers, and with 16-bit registers the maximum address is 2^16 - 1 or 0xffff (64 kilobytes). [Memory segmentation](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_segmentation) is used to make use of all the address space available. All memory is divided into small, fixed-size segments of 65536 bytes, or 64 KB. Since we cannot address memory above 64 KB with 16 bit registers, an alternate method is devised. An address consists of two parts: a segment selector which has an associated base address and an offset from this base address. In real mode, the associated base address of a segment selector is `Segment Selector * 16`. Thus, to get a physical address in memory, we need to multiply the segment selector part by 16 and add the offset part:
 
 ```
 PhysicalAddress = Segment Selector * 16 + Offset
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ objdump -D -b binary -mi386 -Maddr16,data16,intel boot
 
 A real-world boot sector has code to continue the boot process and the partition table instead of a bunch of 0's and an exclamation mark :) From this point onwards, BIOS hands over control to the bootloader.
 
-**NOTE**: As you can read above the CPU is in real mode. In real mode, calculating the physical address in memory is done as follows:
+**NOTE**: As you can read above, the CPU is in real mode. In real mode, calculating the physical address in memory is done as follows:
 
 ```
 PhysicalAddress = Segment Selector * 16 + Offset

Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md

@@ -304,7 +304,7 @@ static inline void io_delay(void)
 }
 ```
 
-Outputting any byte to the port `0x80` should delay exactly 1 microsecond. So we can write any value (value from `AL` register in our case) to the `0x80` port. After this delay `realmode_switch_hook` function has finished execution and we can move to the next function.
+To output any byte to the port `0x80` should delay exactly 1 microsecond. So we can write any value (value from `AL` register in our case) to the `0x80` port. After this delay `realmode_switch_hook` function has finished execution and we can move to the next function.
 
 The next function is `enable_a20`, which enables [A20 line](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A20_line). This function is defined in [arch/x86/boot/a20.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/master/arch/x86/boot/a20.c) and it tries to enable the A20 gate with different methods. The first is the `a20_test_short` function which checks if A20 is already enabled or not with the `a20_test` function:
 
@@ -567,7 +567,7 @@ That's all. We're in the protected mode and stop at it's entry point. We will se
 Conclusion
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
-This is the end of the third part about linux kernel insides. In next part we will see first steps in the protected mode and transition into the [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode).
+This is the end of the third part about linux kernel insides. In next part, we will see first steps in the protected mode and transition into the [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode).
 
 If you have any questions or suggestions write me a comment or ping me at [twitter](https://twitter.com/0xAX).
 

Booting/linux-bootstrap-4.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ Kernel booting process. Part 4.
 Transition to 64-bit mode
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
-This is the fourth part of the `Kernel booting process` where we will see first steps in [protected mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode), like checking that cpu supports [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) and [SSE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_SIMD_Extensions), [paging](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging), initializes the page tables and at the end we will discus the transition to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode).
+This is the fourth part of the `Kernel booting process` where we will see first steps in [protected mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode), like checking that cpu supports [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) and [SSE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_SIMD_Extensions), [paging](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging), initializes the page tables and at the end we will discuss the transition to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode).
 
 **NOTE: there will be much assembly code in this part, so if you are not familiar with that, you might want to consult a book about it**
 

contributors.md

@@ -92,3 +92,4 @@ Thank you to all contributors:
 * [Pushpinder Singh](https://github.com/PrinceDhaliwal)
 * [Xiaoqin Hu](https://github.com/huxq)
 * [Jeremy Cline](https://github.com/jeremycline)
+* [Kavindra Nikhurpa](kavindra.nikhurpa@hotmail.com)