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Grammar and formatting fixes in linux-bootstrap-2.md

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Booting/linux-bootstrap-2.md
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@ -4,13 +4,13 @@ Kernel booting process. Part 2.
First steps in the kernel setup First steps in the kernel setup
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We started to dive into linux kernel insides in the previous [part](linux-bootstrap-1.md) and saw the initial part of the kernel setup code. We stopped at the first call to the `main` function (which is the first function written in C) from [arch/x86/boot/main.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c). We started to dive into the linux kernel's insides in the previous [part](linux-bootstrap-1.md) and saw the initial part of the kernel setup code. We stopped at the first call to the `main` function (which is the first function written in C) from [arch/x86/boot/main.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c).
In this part, we will continue to research the kernel setup code and In this part, we will continue to research the kernel setup code and go over
* see what `protected mode` is, * what `protected mode` is,
* some preparation for the transition into it, * the transition into it,
* the heap and console initialization, * the initialization of the heap and the console,
* memory detection, CPU validation, keyboard initialization * memory detection, CPU validation and keyboard initialization
* and much much more. * and much much more.
So, Let's go ahead. So, Let's go ahead.
@ -22,16 +22,16 @@ Before we can move to the native Intel64 [Long Mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wik
What is [protected mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode)? Protected mode was first added to the x86 architecture in 1982 and was the main mode of Intel processors from the [80286](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286) processor until Intel 64 and long mode came. What is [protected mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode)? Protected mode was first added to the x86 architecture in 1982 and was the main mode of Intel processors from the [80286](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286) processor until Intel 64 and long mode came.
The main reason to move away from [Real mode](http://wiki.osdev.org/Real_Mode) is that there is very limited access to the RAM. As you may remember from the previous part, there is only 2<sup>20</sup> bytes or 1 Megabyte, sometimes even only 640 Kilobytes of RAM available in the Real mode. The main reason to move away from [Real mode](http://wiki.osdev.org/Real_Mode) is that there is very limited access to the RAM. As you may remember from the previous part, there are only 2<sup>20</sup> bytes or 1 Megabyte, sometimes even only 640 Kilobytes of RAM available in the Real mode.
Protected mode brought many changes, but the main one is the difference in memory management. The 20-bit address bus was replaced with a 32-bit address bus. It allowed access to 4 Gigabytes of memory vs 1 Megabyte of real mode. Also, [paging](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging) support was added, which you can read about in the next sections. Protected mode brought many changes, but the main one is the difference in memory management. The 20-bit address bus was replaced with a 32-bit address bus. It allowed access to 4 Gigabytes of memory vs the 1 Megabyte in real mode. Also, [paging](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging) support was added, which you can read about in the next sections.
Memory management in Protected mode is divided into two, almost independent parts: Memory management in Protected mode is divided into two, almost independent parts:
* Segmentation * Segmentation
* Paging * Paging
Here we will only see segmentation. Paging will be discussed in the next sections. Here we will only talk about segmentation. Paging will be discussed in the next sections.
As you can read in the previous part, addresses consist of two parts in real mode: As you can read in the previous part, addresses consist of two parts in real mode:
@ -44,18 +44,18 @@ And we can get the physical address if we know these two parts by:
PhysicalAddress = Segment Selector * 16 + Offset PhysicalAddress = Segment Selector * 16 + Offset
``` ```
Memory segmentation was completely redone in protected mode. There are no 64 Kilobyte fixed-size segments. Instead, the size and location of each segment is described by an associated data structure called _Segment Descriptor_. The segment descriptors are stored in a data structure called `Global Descriptor Table` (GDT). Memory segmentation was completely redone in protected mode. There are no 64 Kilobyte fixed-size segments. Instead, the size and location of each segment is described by an associated data structure called the _Segment Descriptor_. The segment descriptors are stored in a data structure called the `Global Descriptor Table` (GDT).
The GDT is a structure which resides in memory. It has no fixed place in the memory so, its address is stored in the special `GDTR` register. Later we will see the GDT loading in the Linux kernel code. There will be an operation for loading it into memory, something like: The GDT is a structure which resides in memory. It has no fixed place in the memory so, its address is stored in the special `GDTR` register. Later we will see how the GDT is loaded in the Linux kernel code. There will be an operation for loading it into memory, something like:
```assembly ```assembly
lgdt gdt lgdt gdt
``` ```
where the `lgdt` instruction loads the base address and limit(size) of global descriptor table to the `GDTR` register. `GDTR` is a 48-bit register and consists of two parts: where the `lgdt` instruction loads the base address and limit(size) of the global descriptor table to the `GDTR` register. `GDTR` is a 48-bit register and consists of two parts:
* size(16-bit) of global descriptor table; * the size(16-bit) of the global descriptor table;
* address(32-bit) of the global descriptor table. * the address(32-bit) of the global descriptor table.
As mentioned above the GDT contains `segment descriptors` which describe memory segments. Each descriptor is 64-bits in size. The general scheme of a descriptor is: As mentioned above the GDT contains `segment descriptors` which describe memory segments. Each descriptor is 64-bits in size. The general scheme of a descriptor is:
@ -65,78 +65,78 @@ As mentioned above the GDT contains `segment descriptors` which describe memory
| | |B| |A| | | | |0|E|W|A| | | | |B| |A| | | | |0|E|W|A| |
| BASE 31:24 |G|/|L|V| LIMIT |P|DPL|S| TYPE | BASE 23:16 | | BASE 31:24 |G|/|L|V| LIMIT |P|DPL|S| TYPE | BASE 23:16 |
| | | D | | L | 19:16 | | | | 1 | C | R | A | | | | | D | | L | 19:16 | | | | 1 | C | R | A | |
------------------------------------------------------------ | --- |
31 16 15 0 31 16 15 0
------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------
| | | | | |
| BASE 15:0 | LIMIT 15:0 | | BASE 15:0 | LIMIT 15:0 |
| | | | | |
------------------------------------------------------------ | --- |
``` ```
Don't worry, I know it looks a little scary after real mode, but it's easy. For example LIMIT 15:0 means that bits 0-15 of Limit are located in the beginning of the Descriptor. The rest of it is in LIMIT 19:16, which is located at bits 48-51 of the Descriptor. So, the size of Limit is 0-19 i.e 20-bits. Let's take a closer look at it: Don't worry, I know it looks a little scary after real mode, but it's easy. For example LIMIT 15:0 means that bits 0-15 of Limit are located at the beginning of the Descriptor. The rest of it is in LIMIT 19:16, which is located at bits 48-51 of the Descriptor. So, the size of Limit is 0-19 i.e 20-bits. Let's take a closer look at it:
1. Limit[20-bits] is at 0-15, 48-51 bits. It defines `length_of_segment - 1`. It depends on `G`(Granularity) bit. 1. Limit[20-bits] is split between bits 0-15 and 48-51. It defines the `length_of_segment - 1`. It depends on the `G`(Granularity) bit.
* if `G` (bit 55) is 0 and segment limit is 0, the size of the segment is 1 Byte * if `G` (bit 55) is 0 and the segment limit is 0, the size of the segment is 1 Byte
* if `G` is 1 and segment limit is 0, the size of the segment is 4096 Bytes * if `G` is 1 and the segment limit is 0, the size of the segment is 4096 Bytes
* if `G` is 0 and segment limit is 0xfffff, the size of the segment is 1 Megabyte * if `G` is 0 and the segment limit is 0xfffff, the size of the segment is 1 Megabyte
* if `G` is 1 and segment limit is 0xfffff, the size of the segment is 4 Gigabytes * if `G` is 1 and the segment limit is 0xfffff, the size of the segment is 4 Gigabytes
So, it means that if So, what this means is
* if G is 0, Limit is interpreted in terms of 1 Byte and the maximum size of the segment can be 1 Megabyte. * if G is 0, Limit is interpreted in terms of 1 Byte and the maximum size of the segment can be 1 Megabyte.
* if G is 1, Limit is interpreted in terms of 4096 Bytes = 4 KBytes = 1 Page and the maximum size of the segment can be 4 Gigabytes. Actually, when G is 1, the value of Limit is shifted to the left by 12 bits. So, 20 bits + 12 bits = 32 bits and 2<sup>32</sup> = 4 Gigabytes. * if G is 1, Limit is interpreted in terms of 4096 Bytes = 4 KBytes = 1 Page and the maximum size of the segment can be 4 Gigabytes. Actually, when G is 1, the value of Limit is shifted to the left by 12 bits. So, 20 bits + 12 bits = 32 bits and 2<sup>32</sup> = 4 Gigabytes.
2. Base[32-bits] is at 16-31, 32-39 and 56-63 bits. It defines the physical address of the segment's starting location. 2. Base[32-bits] is split between bits 16-31, 32-39 and 56-63. It defines the physical address of the segment's starting location.
3. Type/Attribute[5-bits] is at 40-44 bits. It defines the type of segment and kinds of access to it. 3. Type/Attribute[5-bits] is represented by bits 40-44. It defines the type of segment and how it can be accessed.
* `S` flag at bit 44 specifies descriptor type. If `S` is 0 then this segment is a system segment, whereas if `S` is 1 then this is a code or data segment (Stack segments are data segments which must be read/write segments). * The `S` flag at bit 44 specifies the descriptor type. If `S` is 0 then this segment is a system segment, whereas if `S` is 1 then this is a code or data segment (Stack segments are data segments which must be read/write segments).
To determine if the segment is a code or data segment we can check its Ex(bit 43) Attribute marked as 0 in the above diagram. If it is 0, then the segment is a Data segment otherwise it is a code segment. To determine if the segment is a code or data segment, we can check its Ex(bit 43) Attribute (marked as 0 in the above diagram). If it is 0, then the segment is a Data segment, otherwise, it is a code segment.
A segment can be of one of the following types: A segment can be of one of the following types:
``` ```
| Type Field | Descriptor Type | Description | Type Field | Descriptor Type | Description |
|-----------------------------|-----------------|------------------ | --------------------------- | --------------- | ---------------------------------- |
| Decimal | | | Decimal | |
| 0 E W A | | | 0 E W A | |
| 0 0 0 0 0 | Data | Read-Only | 0 0 0 0 0 | Data | Read-Only |
| 1 0 0 0 1 | Data | Read-Only, accessed | 1 0 0 0 1 | Data | Read-Only, accessed |
| 2 0 0 1 0 | Data | Read/Write | 2 0 0 1 0 | Data | Read/Write |
| 3 0 0 1 1 | Data | Read/Write, accessed | 3 0 0 1 1 | Data | Read/Write, accessed |
| 4 0 1 0 0 | Data | Read-Only, expand-down | 4 0 1 0 0 | Data | Read-Only, expand-down |
| 5 0 1 0 1 | Data | Read-Only, expand-down, accessed | 5 0 1 0 1 | Data | Read-Only, expand-down, accessed |
| 6 0 1 1 0 | Data | Read/Write, expand-down | 6 0 1 1 0 | Data | Read/Write, expand-down |
| 7 0 1 1 1 | Data | Read/Write, expand-down, accessed | 7 0 1 1 1 | Data | Read/Write, expand-down, accessed |
| C R A | | | C R A | |
| 8 1 0 0 0 | Code | Execute-Only | 8 1 0 0 0 | Code | Execute-Only |
| 9 1 0 0 1 | Code | Execute-Only, accessed | 9 1 0 0 1 | Code | Execute-Only, accessed |
| 10 1 0 1 0 | Code | Execute/Read | 10 1 0 1 0 | Code | Execute/Read |
| 11 1 0 1 1 | Code | Execute/Read, accessed | 11 1 0 1 1 | Code | Execute/Read, accessed |
| 12 1 1 0 0 | Code | Execute-Only, conforming | 12 1 1 0 0 | Code | Execute-Only, conforming |
| 14 1 1 0 1 | Code | Execute-Only, conforming, accessed | 14 1 1 0 1 | Code | Execute-Only, conforming, accessed |
| 13 1 1 1 0 | Code | Execute/Read, conforming | 13 1 1 1 0 | Code | Execute/Read, conforming |
| 15 1 1 1 1 | Code | Execute/Read, conforming, accessed | 15 1 1 1 1 | Code | Execute/Read, conforming, accessed |
``` ```
As we can see the first bit(bit 43) is `0` for a _data_ segment and `1` for a _code_ segment. The next three bits (40, 41, 42) are either `EWA`(*E*xpansion *W*ritable *A*ccessible) or CRA(*C*onforming *R*eadable *A*ccessible). As we can see the first bit(bit 43) is `0` for a _data_ segment and `1` for a _code_ segment. The next three bits (40, 41, 42) are either `EWA`(*E*xpansion *W*ritable *A*ccessible) or CRA(*C*onforming *R*eadable *A*ccessible).
* if E(bit 42) is 0, expand up otherwise expand down. Read more [here](http://www.sudleyplace.com/dpmione/expanddown.html). * if E(bit 42) is 0, expand up, otherwise, expand down. Read more [here](http://www.sudleyplace.com/dpmione/expanddown.html).
* if W(bit 41)(for Data Segments) is 1, write access is allowed otherwise not. Note that read access is always allowed on data segments. * if W(bit 41)(for Data Segments) is 1, write access is allowed, and if it is 0, the segment is read-only. Note that read access is always allowed on data segments.
* A(bit 40) - Whether the segment is accessed by processor or not. * A(bit 40) controls whether the segment can be accessed by the processor or not.
* C(bit 43) is conforming bit(for code selectors). If C is 1, the segment code can be executed from a lower level privilege e.g. user level. If C is 0, it can only be executed from the same privilege level. * C(bit 43) is the conforming bit(for code selectors). If C is 1, the segment code can be executed from a lower level privilege (e.g. user) level. If C is 0, it can only be executed from the same privilege level.
* R(bit 41)(for code segments). If 1 read access to segment is allowed otherwise not. Write access is never allowed to code segments. * R(bit 41) controls read access to code segments; when it is 1, the segment can be read from. Write access is never granted for code segments.
4. DPL[2-bits] (Descriptor Privilege Level) is at bits 45-46. It defines the privilege level of the segment. It can be 0-3 where 0 is the most privileged. 4. DPL[2-bits] (Descriptor Privilege Level) comprises the bits 45-46. It defines the privilege level of the segment. It can be 0-3 where 0 is the most privileged level.
5. P flag(bit 47) - indicates if the segment is present in memory or not. If P is 0, the segment will be presented as _invalid_ and the processor will refuse to read this segment. 5. The P flag(bit 47) indicates if the segment is present in memory or not. If P is 0, the segment will be presented as _invalid_ and the processor will refuse to read from this segment.
6. AVL flag(bit 52) - Available and reserved bits. It is ignored in Linux. 6. AVL flag(bit 52) - Available and reserved bits. It is ignored in Linux.
7. L flag(bit 53) - indicates whether a code segment contains native 64-bit code. If 1 then the code segment executes in 64-bit mode. 7. The L flag(bit 53) indicates whether a code segment contains native 64-bit code. If it is set, then the code segment executes in 64-bit mode.
8. D/B flag(bit 54) - Default/Big flag represents the operand size i.e 16/32 bits. If it is set then 32 bit otherwise 16. 8. The D/B flag(bit 54) (Default/Big flag) represents the operand size i.e 16/32 bits. If set, operand size is 32 bits. Otherwise, it is 16 bits.
Segment registers contain segment selectors as in real mode. However, in protected mode, a segment selector is handled differently. Each Segment Descriptor has an associated Segment Selector which is a 16-bit structure: Segment registers contain segment selectors as in real mode. However, in protected mode, a segment selector is handled differently. Each Segment Descriptor has an associated Segment Selector which is a 16-bit structure:
@ -144,23 +144,23 @@ Segment registers contain segment selectors as in real mode. However, in protect
15 3 2 1 0 15 3 2 1 0
----------------------------- -----------------------------
| Index | TI | RPL | | Index | TI | RPL |
----------------------------- | ----- |
``` ```
Where, Where,
* **Index** shows the index number of the descriptor in the GDT. * **Index** stores the index number of the descriptor in the GDT.
* **TI**(Table Indicator) shows where to search for the descriptor. If it is 0 then search in the Global Descriptor Table(GDT) otherwise it will look in Local Descriptor Table(LDT). * **TI**(Table Indicator) indicates where to search for the descriptor. If it is 0 then the descriptor is searched for in the Global Descriptor Table(GDT). Otherwise, it will be searched for in the Local Descriptor Table(LDT).
* And **RPL** is Requester's Privilege Level. * And **RPL** contains the Requester's Privilege Level.
Every segment register has a visible and hidden part. Every segment register has a visible and a hidden part.
* Visible - Segment Selector is stored here * Visible - The Segment Selector is stored here.
* Hidden - Segment Descriptor(base, limit, attributes, flags) * Hidden - The Segment Descriptor (which contains the base, limit, attributes & flags) is stored here.
The following steps are needed to get the physical address in the protected mode: The following steps are needed to get a physical address in protected mode:
* The segment selector must be loaded in one of the segment registers * The segment selector must be loaded in one of the segment registers.
* The CPU tries to find a segment descriptor by GDT address + Index from selector and load the descriptor into the *hidden* part of the segment register * The CPU tries to find a segment descriptor at the offset `GDT address + Index` from the selector and then loads the descriptor into the *hidden* part of the segment register.
* Base address (from segment descriptor) + offset will be the linear address of the segment which is the physical address (if paging is disabled). * If paging is disabled, the linear address of the segment, or its physical address, is given by the formula: Base address (found in the descriptor obtained in the previous step) + Offset.
Schematically it will look like this: Schematically it will look like this:
@ -169,8 +169,8 @@ Schematically it will look like this:
The algorithm for the transition from real mode into protected mode is: The algorithm for the transition from real mode into protected mode is:
* Disable interrupts * Disable interrupts
* Describe and load GDT with `lgdt` instruction * Describe and load the GDT with the `lgdt` instruction
* Set PE (Protection Enable) bit in CR0 (Control Register 0) * Set the PE (Protection Enable) bit in CR0 (Control Register 0)
* Jump to protected mode code * Jump to protected mode code
We will see the complete transition to protected mode in the linux kernel in the next part, but before we can move to protected mode, we need to do some more preparations. We will see the complete transition to protected mode in the linux kernel in the next part, but before we can move to protected mode, we need to do some more preparations.
@ -180,15 +180,15 @@ Let's look at [arch/x86/boot/main.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f7
Copying boot parameters into the "zeropage" Copying boot parameters into the "zeropage"
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We will start from the `main` routine in "main.c". First function which is called in `main` is [`copy_boot_params(void)`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L30). It copies the kernel setup header into the field of the `boot_params` structure which is defined in the [arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h#L113). We will start from the `main` routine in "main.c". The first function which is called in `main` is [`copy_boot_params(void)`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L30). It copies the kernel setup header into the corresponding field of the `boot_params` structure which is defined in the file [arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h#L113).
The `boot_params` structure contains the `struct setup_header hdr` field. This structure contains the same fields as defined in [linux boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt) and is filled by the boot loader and also at kernel compile/build time. `copy_boot_params` does two things: The `boot_params` structure contains the `struct setup_header hdr` field. This structure contains the same fields as defined in the [linux boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt) and is filled by the boot loader and also at kernel compile/build time. `copy_boot_params` does two things:
1. Copies `hdr` from [header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L281) to the `boot_params` structure in `setup_header` field 1. It copies `hdr` from [header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L281) to the `boot_params` structure in `setup_header` field
2. Updates pointer to the kernel command line if the kernel was loaded with the old command line protocol. 2. It updates the pointer to the kernel command line if the kernel was loaded with the old command line protocol.
Note that it copies `hdr` with `memcpy` function which is defined in the [copy.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/copy.S) source file. Let's have a look inside: Note that it copies `hdr` with the `memcpy` function, defined in the [copy.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/copy.S) source file. Let's have a look inside:
```assembly ```assembly
GLOBAL(memcpy) GLOBAL(memcpy)
@ -208,27 +208,27 @@ GLOBAL(memcpy)
ENDPROC(memcpy) ENDPROC(memcpy)
``` ```
Yeah, we just moved to C code and now assembly again :) First of all, we can see that `memcpy` and other routines which are defined here, start and end with the two macros: `GLOBAL` and `ENDPROC`. `GLOBAL` is described in [arch/x86/include/asm/linkage.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/include/asm/linkage.h) which defines `globl` directive and the label for it. `ENDPROC` is described in [include/linux/linkage.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/include/linux/linkage.h) which marks the `name` symbol as a function name and ends with the size of the `name` symbol. Yeah, we just moved to C code and now assembly again :) First of all, we can see that `memcpy` and other routines which are defined here, start and end with the two macros: `GLOBAL` and `ENDPROC`. `GLOBAL` is described in [arch/x86/include/asm/linkage.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/include/asm/linkage.h) which defines the `globl` directive and its label. `ENDPROC` is described in [include/linux/linkage.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/include/linux/linkage.h) and marks the `name` symbol as a function name and ends with the size of the `name` symbol.
Implementation of `memcpy` is easy. At first, it pushes values from the `si` and `di` registers to the stack to preserve their values because they will change during the `memcpy`. `memcpy` (and other functions in copy.S) use `fastcall` calling conventions. So it gets its incoming parameters from the `ax`, `dx` and `cx` registers. Calling `memcpy` looks like this: The implementation of `memcpy` is simple. At first, it pushes values from the `si` and `di` registers to the stack to preserve their values because they will change during the `memcpy`. `memcpy` and other functions in copy.S use `fastcall` calling conventions. So it gets its incoming parameters from the `ax`, `dx` and `cx` registers. Calling `memcpy` looks like this:
```c ```c
memcpy(&boot_params.hdr, &hdr, sizeof hdr); memcpy(&boot_params.hdr, &hdr, sizeof hdr);
``` ```
So, So,
* `ax` will contain the address of the `boot_params.hdr` * `ax` will contain the address of `boot_params.hdr`
* `dx` will contain the address of `hdr` * `dx` will contain the address of `hdr`
* `cx` will contain the size of `hdr` in bytes. * `cx` will contain the size of `hdr` in bytes.
`memcpy` puts the address of `boot_params.hdr` into `di` and saves the size on the stack. After this it shifts to the right on 2 size (or divide on 4) and copies from `si` to `di` by 4 bytes. After this, we restore the size of `hdr` again, align it by 4 bytes and copy the rest of the bytes from `si` to `di` byte by byte (if there is more). Restore `si` and `di` values from the stack in the end and after this copying is finished. `memcpy` puts the address of `boot_params.hdr` into `di` and saves `cx` on the stack. After this it shifts the value right 2 times (or divides it by 4) and copies four bytes from the address at `si` to the address at `di`. After this, we restore the size of `hdr` again, align it by 4 bytes and copy the rest of the bytes from the address at `si` to the address at `di` byte by byte (if there is more). Now the values of `si` and `di` are restored from the stack and the copying operation is finished.
Console initialization Console initialization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
After `hdr` is copied into `boot_params.hdr`, the next step is console initialization by calling the `console_init` function which is defined in [arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.c). After `hdr` is copied into `boot_params.hdr`, the next step is to initialize the console by calling the `console_init` function, defined in [arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/early_serial_console.c).
It tries to find the `earlyprintk` option in the command line and if the search was successful, it parses the port address and baud rate of the serial port and initializes the serial port. The value of `earlyprintk` command line option can be one of these: It tries to find the `earlyprintk` option in the command line and if the search was successful, it parses the port address and baud rate of the serial port and initializes the serial port. The value of the `earlyprintk` command line option can be one of these:
* serial,0x3f8,115200 * serial,0x3f8,115200
* serial,ttyS0,115200 * serial,ttyS0,115200
@ -258,7 +258,7 @@ void __attribute__((section(".inittext"))) putchar(int ch)
`__attribute__((section(".inittext")))` means that this code will be in the `.inittext` section. We can find it in the linker file [setup.ld](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/setup.ld#L19). `__attribute__((section(".inittext")))` means that this code will be in the `.inittext` section. We can find it in the linker file [setup.ld](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/setup.ld#L19).
First of all, `putchar` checks for the `\n` symbol and if it is found, prints `\r` before. After that it outputs the character on the VGA screen by calling the BIOS with the `0x10` interrupt call: First of all, `putchar` checks for the `\n` symbol and if it is found, prints `\r` before. After that it prints the character on the VGA screen by calling the BIOS with the `0x10` interrupt call:
```C ```C
static void __attribute__((section(".inittext"))) bios_putchar(int ch) static void __attribute__((section(".inittext"))) bios_putchar(int ch)
@ -285,7 +285,7 @@ Here `initregs` takes the `biosregs` structure and first fills `biosregs` with z
reg->gs = gs(); reg->gs = gs();
``` ```
Let's look at the [memset](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/copy.S#L36) implementation: Let's look at the implementation of [memset](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/copy.S#L36):
```assembly ```assembly
GLOBAL(memset) GLOBAL(memset)
@ -304,22 +304,22 @@ GLOBAL(memset)
ENDPROC(memset) ENDPROC(memset)
``` ```
As you can read above, it uses the `fastcall` calling conventions like the `memcpy` function, which means that the function gets parameters from `ax`, `dx` and `cx` registers. As you can read above, it uses the `fastcall` calling conventions like the `memcpy` function, which means that the function gets its parameters from the `ax`, `dx` and `cx` registers.
Generally `memset` is like a memcpy implementation. It saves the value of the `di` register on the stack and puts the `ax` value into `di` which is the address of the `biosregs` structure. Next is the `movzbl` instruction, which copies the `dl` value to the low 2 bytes of the `eax` register. The remaining 2 high bytes of `eax` will be filled with zeros. The implementation of `memset` is similar to that of memcpy. It saves the value of the `di` register on the stack and puts the value of`ax`, which stores the address of the `biosregs` structure, into `di` . Next is the `movzbl` instruction, which copies the value of `dl` to the lower 2 bytes of the `eax` register. The remaining 2 high bytes of `eax` will be filled with zeros.
The next instruction multiplies `eax` with `0x01010101`. It needs to because `memset` will copy 4 bytes at the same time. For example, we need to fill a structure with `0x7` with memset. `eax` will contain `0x00000007` value in this case. So if we multiply `eax` with `0x01010101`, we will get `0x07070707` and now we can copy these 4 bytes into the structure. `memset` uses `rep; stosl` instructions for copying `eax` into `es:di`. The next instruction multiplies `eax` with `0x01010101`. It needs to because `memset` will copy 4 bytes at the same time. For example, if we need to fill a structure whose size is 4 bytes with the value `0x7` with memset, `eax` will contain the `0x00000007`. So if we multiply `eax` with `0x01010101`, we will get `0x07070707` and now we can copy these 4 bytes into the structure. `memset` uses the `rep; stosl` instruction to copy `eax` into `es:di`.
The rest of the `memset` function does almost the same as `memcpy`. The rest of the `memset` function does almost the same thing as `memcpy`.
After the `biosregs` structure is filled with `memset`, `bios_putchar` calls the [0x10](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-0106.htm) interrupt which prints a character. Afterwards it checks if the serial port was initialized or not and writes a character there with [serial_putchar](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/tty.c#L30) and `inb/outb` instructions if it was set. After the `biosregs` structure is filled with `memset`, `bios_putchar` calls the [0x10](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-0106.htm) interrupt which prints a character. Afterwards it checks if the serial port was initialized or not and writes a character there with [serial_putchar](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/tty.c#L30) and `inb/outb` instructions if it was set.
Heap initialization Heap initialization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
After the stack and bss section were prepared in [header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/header.S) (see previous [part](linux-bootstrap-1.md)), the kernel needs to initialize the [heap](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L116) with the [`init_heap`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L116) function. After the stack and bss section have been prepared in [header.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/header.S) (see previous [part](linux-bootstrap-1.md)), the kernel needs to initialize the [heap](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L116) with the [`init_heap`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L116) function.
First of all `init_heap` checks the [`CAN_USE_HEAP`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h#L22) flag from the [`loadflags`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L321) in the kernel setup header and calculates the end of the stack if this flag was set: First of all `init_heap` checks the [`CAN_USE_HEAP`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h#L22) flag from the [`loadflags`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L321) structure in the kernel setup header and calculates the end of the stack if this flag was set:
```C ```C
char *stack_end; char *stack_end;
@ -339,12 +339,12 @@ Then there is the `heap_end` calculation:
which means `heap_end_ptr` or `_end` + `512` (`0x200h`). The last check is whether `heap_end` is greater than `stack_end`. If it is then `stack_end` is assigned to `heap_end` to make them equal. which means `heap_end_ptr` or `_end` + `512` (`0x200h`). The last check is whether `heap_end` is greater than `stack_end`. If it is then `stack_end` is assigned to `heap_end` to make them equal.
Now the heap is initialized and we can use it using the `GET_HEAP` method. We will see how it is used, how to use it and how it is implemented in the next posts. Now the heap is initialized and we can use it using the `GET_HEAP` method. We will see what it is used for, how to use it and how it is implemented in the next posts.
CPU validation CPU validation
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The next step as we can see is cpu validation by `validate_cpu` from [arch/x86/boot/cpu.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/cpu.c). The next step as we can see is cpu validation through the `validate_cpu` function from [arch/x86/boot/cpu.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/cpu.c).
It calls the [`check_cpu`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/cpucheck.c#L112) function and passes cpu level and required cpu level to it and checks that the kernel launches on the right cpu level. It calls the [`check_cpu`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/cpucheck.c#L112) function and passes cpu level and required cpu level to it and checks that the kernel launches on the right cpu level.
```c ```c
@ -354,14 +354,14 @@ if (cpu_level < req_level) {
return -1; return -1;
} }
``` ```
`check_cpu` checks the CPU's flags, the presence of [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) in the case of x86_64(64-bit) CPU, checks the processor's vendor and makes preparation for certain vendors like turning off SSE+SSE2 for AMD if they are missing, etc. `check_cpu` checks the CPU's flags, the presence of [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) in the case of x86_64(64-bit) CPU, checks the processor's vendor and makes preparations for certain vendors like turning off SSE+SSE2 for AMD if they are missing, etc.
Memory detection Memory detection
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The next step is memory detection by the `detect_memory` function. `detect_memory` basically provides a map of available RAM to the CPU. It uses different programming interfaces for memory detection like `0xe820`, `0xe801` and `0x88`. We will see only the implementation of **0xE820** here. The next step is memory detection through the `detect_memory` function. `detect_memory` basically provides a map of available RAM to the CPU. It uses different programming interfaces for memory detection like `0xe820`, `0xe801` and `0x88`. We will see only the implementation of the **0xE820** interface here.
Let's look into the `detect_memory_e820` implementation from the [arch/x86/boot/memory.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/memory.c) source file. First of all, the `detect_memory_e820` function initializes the `biosregs` structure as we saw above and fills registers with special values for the `0xe820` call: Let's look at the implementation of the `detect_memory_e820` function from the [arch/x86/boot/memory.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/memory.c) source file. First of all, the `detect_memory_e820` function initializes the `biosregs` structure as we saw above and fills registers with special values for the `0xe820` call:
```assembly ```assembly
initregs(&ireg); initregs(&ireg);
@ -372,23 +372,23 @@ Let's look into the `detect_memory_e820` implementation from the [arch/x86/boot/
``` ```
* `ax` contains the number of the function (0xe820 in our case) * `ax` contains the number of the function (0xe820 in our case)
* `cx` register contains size of the buffer which will contain data about memory * `cx` contains the size of the buffer which will contain data about the memory
* `edx` must contain the `SMAP` magic number * `edx` must contain the `SMAP` magic number
* `es:di` must contain the address of the buffer which will contain memory data * `es:di` must contain the address of the buffer which will contain memory data
* `ebx` has to be zero. * `ebx` has to be zero.
Next is a loop where data about the memory will be collected. It starts from the call of the `0x15` BIOS interrupt, which writes one line from the address allocation table. For getting the next line we need to call this interrupt again (which we do in the loop). Before the next call `ebx` must contain the value returned previously: Next is a loop where data about the memory will be collected. It starts with a call to the `0x15` BIOS interrupt, which writes one line from the address allocation table. For getting the next line we need to call this interrupt again (which we do in the loop). Before the next call `ebx` must contain the value returned previously:
```C ```C
intcall(0x15, &ireg, &oreg); intcall(0x15, &ireg, &oreg);
ireg.ebx = oreg.ebx; ireg.ebx = oreg.ebx;
``` ```
Ultimately, it does iterations in the loop to collect data from the address allocation table and writes this data into the `e820_entry` array: Ultimately, this function collects data from the address allocation table and writes this data into the `e820_entry` array:
* start of memory segment * start of memory segment
* size of memory segment * size of memory segment
* type of memory segment (which can be reserved, usable and etc...). * type of memory segment (whether the particular segment is usable or reserved)
You can see the result of this in the `dmesg` output, something like: You can see the result of this in the `dmesg` output, something like:
@ -402,7 +402,7 @@ You can see the result of this in the `dmesg` output, something like:
[ 0.000000] BIOS-e820: [mem 0x00000000fffc0000-0x00000000ffffffff] reserved [ 0.000000] BIOS-e820: [mem 0x00000000fffc0000-0x00000000ffffffff] reserved
``` ```
Next we may see call of the `set_bios_mode` function after physical memory is detected. As we may see, this function is implemented only for the `x86_64` mode: Next, we may see a call to the `set_bios_mode` function. As we may see, this function is implemented only for the `x86_64` mode:
```C ```C
static void set_bios_mode(void) static void set_bios_mode(void)
@ -418,12 +418,12 @@ static void set_bios_mode(void)
} }
``` ```
The `set_bios_mode` executes `0x15` BIOS interrupt to tell the BIOS that [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) (in a case of `bx = 2`) will be used. The `set_bios_mode` function executes the `0x15` BIOS interrupt to tell the BIOS that [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) (if `bx == 2`) will be used.
Keyboard initialization Keyboard initialization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The next step is the initialization of the keyboard with the call of the [`keyboard_init()`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L65) function. At first `keyboard_init` initializes registers using the `initregs` function and calling the [0x16](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-1756.htm) interrupt for getting the keyboard status. The next step is the initialization of the keyboard with a call to the [`keyboard_init()`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/main.c#L65) function. At first `keyboard_init` initializes registers using the `initregs` function. It then calls the [0x16](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-1756.htm) interrupt to query the status of the keyboard.
```c ```c
initregs(&ireg); initregs(&ireg);
@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ The next step is the initialization of the keyboard with the call of the [`keybo
boot_params.kbd_status = oreg.al; boot_params.kbd_status = oreg.al;
``` ```
After this it calls [0x16](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-1757.htm) again to set repeat rate and delay. After this it calls [0x16](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-1757.htm) again to set the repeat rate and delay.
```c ```c
ireg.ax = 0x0305; /* Set keyboard repeat rate */ ireg.ax = 0x0305; /* Set keyboard repeat rate */
@ -442,15 +442,15 @@ After this it calls [0x16](http://www.ctyme.com/intr/rb-1757.htm) again to set r
Querying Querying
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The next couple of steps are queries for different parameters. We will not dive into details about these queries but will get back to it in later parts. Let's take a short look at these functions: The next couple of steps are queries for different parameters. We will not dive into details about these queries but we will get back to them in later parts. Let's take a short look at these functions:
The first step is getting [Intel SpeedStep](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpeedStep) information by calling the `query_ist` function. First of all, it checks the CPU level and if it is correct, calls `0x15` for getting info and saves the result to `boot_params`. The first step is getting [Intel SpeedStep](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpeedStep) information by calling the `query_ist` function. It checks the CPU level and if it is correct, calls `0x15` to get the info and saves the result to `boot_params`.
The following [query_apm_bios](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/apm.c#L21) function gets [Advanced Power Management](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Power_Management) information from the BIOS. `query_apm_bios` calls the `0x15` BIOS interruption too, but with `ah` = `0x53` to check `APM` installation. After the `0x15` execution, `query_apm_bios` functions check the `PM` signature (it must be `0x504d`), carry flag (it must be 0 if `APM` supported) and value of the `cx` register (if it's 0x02, protected mode interface is supported). Next, the [query_apm_bios](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/apm.c#L21) function gets [Advanced Power Management](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Power_Management) information from the BIOS. `query_apm_bios` calls the `0x15` BIOS interruption too, but with `ah` = `0x53` to check `APM` installation. After `0x15` finishes executing, the `query_apm_bios` functions check the `PM` signature (it must be `0x504d`), the carry flag (it must be 0 if `APM` supported) and the value of the `cx` register (if it's 0x02, the protected mode interface is supported).
Next, it calls `0x15` again, but with `ax = 0x5304` for disconnecting the `APM` interface and connecting the 32-bit protected mode interface. In the end, it fills `boot_params.apm_bios_info` with values obtained from the BIOS. Next, it calls `0x15` again, but with `ax = 0x5304` to disconnect the `APM` interface and connect the 32-bit protected mode interface. In the end, it fills `boot_params.apm_bios_info` with values obtained from the BIOS.
Note that `query_apm_bios` will be executed only if `CONFIG_APM` or `CONFIG_APM_MODULE` was set in the configuration file: Note that `query_apm_bios` will be executed only if the `CONFIG_APM` or `CONFIG_APM_MODULE` compile time flag was set in the configuration file:
```C ```C
#if defined(CONFIG_APM) || defined(CONFIG_APM_MODULE) #if defined(CONFIG_APM) || defined(CONFIG_APM_MODULE)
@ -458,7 +458,7 @@ Note that `query_apm_bios` will be executed only if `CONFIG_APM` or `CONFIG_APM_
#endif #endif
``` ```
The last is the [`query_edd`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/edd.c#L122) function, which queries `Enhanced Disk Drive` information from the BIOS. Let's look into the `query_edd` implementation. The last is the [`query_edd`](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/edd.c#L122) function, which queries `Enhanced Disk Drive` information from the BIOS. Let's look at how `query_edd` is implemented.
First of all, it reads the [edd](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/Documentation/kernel-parameters.txt#L1023) option from the kernel's command line and if it was set to `off` then `query_edd` just returns. First of all, it reads the [edd](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/Documentation/kernel-parameters.txt#L1023) option from the kernel's command line and if it was set to `off` then `query_edd` just returns.
@ -477,12 +477,12 @@ for (devno = 0x80; devno < 0x80+EDD_MBR_SIG_MAX; devno++) {
} }
``` ```
where `0x80` is the first hard drive and the value of `EDD_MBR_SIG_MAX` macro is 16. It collects data into the array of [edd_info](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/include/uapi/linux/edd.h#L172) structures. `get_edd_info` checks that EDD is present by invoking the `0x13` interrupt with `ah` as `0x41` and if EDD is present, `get_edd_info` again calls the `0x13` interrupt, but with `ah` as `0x48` and `si` containing the address of the buffer where EDD information will be stored. where `0x80` is the first hard drive and the value of the `EDD_MBR_SIG_MAX` macro is 16. It collects data into an array of [edd_info](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/include/uapi/linux/edd.h#L172) structures. `get_edd_info` checks that EDD is present by invoking the `0x13` interrupt with `ah` as `0x41` and if EDD is present, `get_edd_info` again calls the `0x13` interrupt, but with `ah` as `0x48` and `si` containing the address of the buffer where EDD information will be stored.
Conclusion Conclusion
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is the end of the second part about Linux kernel insides. In the next part, we will see video mode setting and the rest of preparations before the transition to protected mode and directly transitioning into it. This is the end of the second part about the insides of the Linux kernel. In the next part, we will see video mode setting and the rest of the preparations before the transition to protected mode and directly transitioning into it.
If you have any questions or suggestions write me a comment or ping me at [twitter](https://twitter.com/0xAX). If you have any questions or suggestions write me a comment or ping me at [twitter](https://twitter.com/0xAX).