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Fix grammar and improve formatting

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Raghav Shankar 2019-04-15 23:56:02 +05:30
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12
Booting/linux-bootstrap-1.md
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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ Kernel booting process. Part 1.
From the bootloader to the kernel From the bootloader to the kernel
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If you have been reading my previous [blog posts](https://0xax.github.io/categories/assembler/), then you can see that, for some time now, I have been starting to get involved with low-level programming. I have written some posts about assembly programming for `x86_64` Linux and, at the same time, I have also started to dive into the Linux kernel source code. If you've read my previous [blog posts](https://0xax.github.io/categories/assembler/), you might have noticed that I have been involved with low-level programming for some time. I have written some posts about assembly programming for `x86_64` Linux and, at the same time, I have also started to dive into the Linux kernel source code.
I have a great interest in understanding how low-level things work, how programs run on my computer, how they are located in memory, how the kernel manages processes and memory, how the network stack works at a low level, and many many other things. So, I have decided to write yet another series of posts about the Linux kernel for the **x86_64** architecture. I have a great interest in understanding how low-level things work, how programs run on my computer, how they are located in memory, how the kernel manages processes and memory, how the network stack works at a low level, and many many other things. So, I have decided to write yet another series of posts about the Linux kernel for the **x86_64** architecture.
@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ _start:
Here we can see the `jmp` instruction [opcode](http://ref.x86asm.net/coder32.html#xE9), which is `0xe9`, and its destination address at `_start16bit - ( . + 2)`. Here we can see the `jmp` instruction [opcode](http://ref.x86asm.net/coder32.html#xE9), which is `0xe9`, and its destination address at `_start16bit - ( . + 2)`.
We can also see that the `reset` section is `16` bytes and that is compiled to start from `0xfffffff0` address (`src/cpu/x86/16bit/reset16.ld`): We can also see that the `reset` section is `16` bytes and is compiled to start from the address `0xfffffff0` (`src/cpu/x86/16bit/reset16.ld`):
``` ```
SECTIONS { SECTIONS {
@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ Build and run this with:
nasm -f bin boot.nasm && qemu-system-x86_64 boot nasm -f bin boot.nasm && qemu-system-x86_64 boot
``` ```
This will instruct [QEMU](http://qemu.org) to use the `boot` binary that we just built as a disk image. Since the binary generated by the assembly code above fulfills the requirements of the boot sector (the origin is set to `0x7c00` and we end with the magic sequence), QEMU will treat the binary as the master boot record (MBR) of a disk image. This will instruct [QEMU](http://qemu.org) to use the `boot` binary that we just built as a disk image. Since the binary generated by the assembly code above fulfills the requirements of the boot sector (the origin is set to `0x7c00` and we end it with the magic sequence), QEMU will treat the binary as the master boot record (MBR) of a disk image.
You will see: You will see:
@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ which pushes the value of `ds` to the stack, followed by the address of the [6](
Stack Setup Stack Setup
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Almost all of the setup code is in preparation for the C language environment in real mode. The next [step](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L575) is checking the `ss` register value and making a correct stack if `ss` is wrong: Almost all of the setup code is for ppreparing the C language environment in real mode. The next [step](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/header.S#L575) is checking the `ss` register's value and setting up a correct stack if `ss` is wrong:
```assembly ```assembly
movw %ss, %dx movw %ss, %dx
@ -405,7 +405,7 @@ Let's look at all three of these scenarios in turn:
sti sti
``` ```
Here we set the alignment of `dx` (which contains the value of `sp` as given by the bootloader) to `4` bytes and a check for whether or not it is zero. If it is zero, we put `0xfffc` (4 byte aligned address before the maximum segment size of 64 KB) in `dx`. If it is not zero, we continue to use the value of `sp` given by the bootloader (0xf7f4 in my case). After this, we put the value of `ax` into `ss`, which stores the correct segment address of `0x1000` and sets up a correct `sp`. We now have a correct stack: Here we set the alignment of `dx` (which contains the value of `sp` as given by the bootloader) to `4` bytes and check if it is zero. If it is, we set `dx` to `0xfffc` (The last 4-byte aligned address in a 64KB segment). If it is not zero, we continue to use the value of `sp` given by the bootloader (0xf7f4 in my case). After this, we put the value of `ax` into `ss`, which means `ss` contains the value `0x1000`. We now have a correct stack:
![stack](http://oi58.tinypic.com/16iwcis.jpg) ![stack](http://oi58.tinypic.com/16iwcis.jpg)
@ -431,7 +431,7 @@ Field name: loadflags
functionality will be disabled. functionality will be disabled.
``` ```
If the `CAN_USE_HEAP` bit is set, we put `heap_end_ptr` into `dx` (which points to `_end`) and add `STACK_SIZE` (minimum stack size, `1024` bytes) to it. After this, if `dx` is not carried (it will not be carried, `dx = _end + 1024`), jump to label `2` (as in the previous case) and make a correct stack. If the `CAN_USE_HEAP` bit is set, we put `heap_end_ptr` into `dx` (which points to `_end`) and add `STACK_SIZE` (the minimum stack size, `1024` bytes) to it. After this, if `dx` is not carried (it will not be carried, `dx = _end + 1024`), jump to label `2` (as in the previous case) and make a correct stack.
![stack](http://oi62.tinypic.com/dr7b5w.jpg) ![stack](http://oi62.tinypic.com/dr7b5w.jpg)

182
Booting/linux-bootstrap-4.md
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@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
Kernel booting process. Part 4. Kernel booting process. Part 4.
================================================================================ ================================================================================
Transition to 64-bit mode The Transition to 64-bit mode
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is the fourth part of the `Kernel booting process` where we will see first steps in [protected mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode), like checking that CPU supports [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) and [SSE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_SIMD_Extensions), [paging](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging), initializes the page tables and at the end we will discuss the transition to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode). This is the fourth part of the `Kernel booting process`. Here, we will learn about the first steps taken in [protected mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode), like checking if the CPU supports [long mode](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) and [SSE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_SIMD_Extensions). We will initialize the page tables with [paging](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging) and, at the end, transition the CPU to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode).
**NOTE: there will be much assembly code in this part, so if you are not familiar with that, you might want to consult a book about it** **NOTE: there will be lots of assembly code in this part, so if you are not familiar with that, you might want to consult a book about it**
In the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md) we stopped at the jump to the `32-bit` entry point in [arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S): In the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md) we stopped at the jump to the `32-bit` entry point in [arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S):
@ -14,13 +14,13 @@ In the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/
jmpl *%eax jmpl *%eax
``` ```
You will recall that `eax` register contains the address of the 32-bit entry point. We can read about this in the [linux kernel x86 boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt): You will recall that the `eax` register contains the address of the 32-bit entry point. We can read about this in the [linux kernel x86 boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt):
``` ```
When using bzImage, the protected-mode kernel was relocated to 0x100000 When using bzImage, the protected-mode kernel was relocated to 0x100000
``` ```
Let's make sure that it is true by looking at the register values at the 32-bit entry point: Let's make sure that this is so by looking at the register values at the 32-bit entry point:
``` ```
eax 0x100000 1048576 eax 0x100000 1048576
@ -41,14 +41,14 @@ fs 0x18 24
gs 0x18 24 gs 0x18 24
``` ```
We can see here that `cs` register contains - `0x10` (as you may remember from the [previous part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md), this is the second index in the `Global Descriptor Table`), `eip` register contains `0x100000` and the base address of all segments including the code segment are zero. We can see here that the `cs` register contains a value of `0x10` (as you maight recall from the [previous part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md), this is the second index in the `Global Descriptor Table`), the `eip` register contains the value `0x100000` and the base address of all segments including the code segment are zero.
So we can get the physical address, it will be `0:0x100000` or just `0x100000`, as specified by the boot protocol. Now let's start with the `32-bit` entry point. So, the physical address where the kernel is loaded would be `0:0x100000` or just `0x100000`, as specified by the boot protocol. Now let's start with the `32-bit` entry point.
32-bit entry point The 32-bit entry point
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We can find the definition of the `32-bit` entry point in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file: The `32-bit` entry point is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file:
```assembly ```assembly
__HEAD __HEAD
@ -60,14 +60,14 @@ ENTRY(startup_32)
ENDPROC(startup_32) ENDPROC(startup_32)
``` ```
First of all, why the directory is named `compressed`? Actually `bzimage` is a gzipped `vmlinux + header + kernel setup code`. We saw the kernel setup code in all of the previous parts. So, the main goal of the `head_64.S` is to prepare for entering long mode, enter into it and then decompress the kernel. We will see all of the steps up to kernel decompression in this part. First, why is the directory named `compressed`? The answer to that is that `bzimage` is a gzipped package consisting of `vmlinux`, `header` and ` kernel setup code`. We looked at kernel setup code in all of the previous parts. The main goal of the code in `head_64.S` is to prepare to enter long mode, enter it and then decompress the kernel. We will look at all of the steps leading to kernel decompression in this part.
You may find two files in the `arch/x86/boot/compressed` directory: You will find two files in the `arch/x86/boot/compressed` directory:
* [head_32.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_32.S) * [head_32.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_32.S)
* [head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) * [head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S)
but we will consider only `head_64.S` source code file because, as you may remember, this book is only `x86_64` related; Let's look at [arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile). We can find the following `make` target here: but we will consider only the `head_64.S` source code file because, as you may remember, this book is only `x86_64` related; Let's look at [arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile). We can find the following `make` target here:
```Makefile ```Makefile
vmlinux-objs-y := $(obj)/vmlinux.lds $(obj)/head_$(BITS).o $(obj)/misc.o \ vmlinux-objs-y := $(obj)/vmlinux.lds $(obj)/head_$(BITS).o $(obj)/misc.o \
@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ vmlinux-objs-y := $(obj)/vmlinux.lds $(obj)/head_$(BITS).o $(obj)/misc.o \
$(obj)/piggy.o $(obj)/cpuflags.o $(obj)/piggy.o $(obj)/cpuflags.o
``` ```
Take a look on the `$(obj)/head_$(BITS).o`. The first line contains this- `$(obj)/head_$(BITS).o`.
This means that we will select which file to link based on what `$(BITS)` is set to, either `head_32.o` or `head_64.o`. The `$(BITS)` variable is defined elsewhere in [arch/x86/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/Makefile) based on the kernel configuration: This means that we will select which file to link based on what `$(BITS)` is set to, either `head_32.o` or `head_64.o`. The `$(BITS)` variable is defined elsewhere in [arch/x86/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/Makefile) based on the kernel configuration:
@ -91,12 +91,12 @@ else
endif endif
``` ```
Now we know where to start, so let's do it. Now that we know where to start, let's get to it.
Reload the segments if needed Reload the segments if needed
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As indicated above, we start in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file. First we see the definition of the special section attribute before the `startup_32` definition: As indicated above, we start in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file. We first see the definition of a special section attribute before the definition of the `startup_32` function:
```assembly ```assembly
__HEAD __HEAD
@ -104,13 +104,13 @@ As indicated above, we start in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https:/
ENTRY(startup_32) ENTRY(startup_32)
``` ```
The `__HEAD` is macro which is defined in [include/linux/init.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/include/linux/init.h) header file and expands to the definition of the following section: `__HEAD` is a macro defined in the [include/linux/init.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/include/linux/init.h) header file and expands to the definition of the following section:
```C ```C
#define __HEAD .section ".head.text","ax" #define __HEAD .section ".head.text","ax"
``` ```
with `.head.text` name and `ax` flags. In our case, these flags show us that this section is [executable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable) or in other words contains code. We can find definition of this section in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S) linker script: Here, `.head.text` is the name of the section and `ax` is a set of flags. In our case, these flags show us that this section is [executable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable) or in other words contains code. We can find the definition of this section in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S) linker script:
``` ```
SECTIONS SECTIONS
@ -127,17 +127,17 @@ SECTIONS
} }
``` ```
If you are not familiar with the syntax of `GNU LD` linker scripting language, you can find more information in the [documentation](https://sourceware.org/binutils/docs/ld/Scripts.html#Scripts). In short, the `.` symbol is a special variable of linker - location counter. The value assigned to it is an offset relative to the segment. In our case, we assign zero to location counter. This means that our code is linked to run from the `0` offset in memory. Moreover, we can find this information in comments: If you are not familiar with the syntax of the `GNU LD` linker scripting language, you can find more information in its [documentation](https://sourceware.org/binutils/docs/ld/Scripts.html#Scripts). In short, the `.` symbol is a special linker variable, the location counter. The value assigned to it is an offset relative to the segment. In our case, we set the location counter to zero. This means that our code is linked to run from an offset of `0` in memory. This is also stated in the comments:
``` ```
Be careful parts of head_64.S assume startup_32 is at address 0. Be careful parts of head_64.S assume startup_32 is at address 0.
``` ```
Ok, now we know where we are, and now is the best time to look inside the `startup_32` function. Now that we have our bearings, let's look at the contents of the `startup_32` function.
In the beginning of the `startup_32` function, we can see the `cld` instruction which clears the `DF` bit in the [flags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLAGS_register) register. When direction flag is clear, all string operations like [stos](http://x86.renejeschke.de/html/file_module_x86_id_306.html), [scas](http://x86.renejeschke.de/html/file_module_x86_id_287.html) and others will increment the index registers `esi` or `edi`. We need to clear direction flag because later we will use strings operations for clearing space for page tables, etc. In the beginning of the `startup_32` function, we can see the `cld` instruction which clears the `DF` bit in the [flags](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLAGS_register) register. When the direction flag is clear, all string operations like [stos](http://x86.renejeschke.de/html/file_module_x86_id_306.html), [scas](http://x86.renejeschke.de/html/file_module_x86_id_287.html) and others will increment the index registers `esi` or `edi`. We need to clear the direction flag because later we will use strings operations to perform various operations such as clearing space for page tables.
After we have cleared the `DF` bit, next step is the check of the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` flag from `loadflags` kernel setup header field. If you remember we already saw `loadflags` in the very first [part](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Booting/linux-bootstrap-1.html) of this book. There we checked `CAN_USE_HEAP` flag to get ability to use heap. Now we need to check the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` flag. This flag is described in the linux [boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt) documentation: After we have cleared the `DF` bit, the next step is to check the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` flag in the `loadflags` kernel setup header field. If you remember, we already talked about `loadflags` in the very first [part](https://0xax.gitbooks.io/linux-insides/content/Booting/linux-bootstrap-1.html) of this book. There we checked the `CAN_USE_HEAP` flag to query the ability to use the heap. Now we need to check the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` flag. This flag is described in the linux [boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt) documentation:
``` ```
Bit 6 (write): KEEP_SEGMENTS Bit 6 (write): KEEP_SEGMENTS
@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ Bit 6 (write): KEEP_SEGMENTS
a base of 0 (or the equivalent for their environment). a base of 0 (or the equivalent for their environment).
``` ```
So, if the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` bit is not set in the `loadflags`, we need to set `ds`, `ss` and `es` segment registers to the index of data segment with base `0`. That we do: So, if the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` bit is not set in `loadflags`, we need to set the `ds`, `ss` and `es` segment registers to the index of the data segment with a base of `0`. That we do:
```C ```C
testb $KEEP_SEGMENTS, BP_loadflags(%esi) testb $KEEP_SEGMENTS, BP_loadflags(%esi)
@ -161,9 +161,9 @@ So, if the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` bit is not set in the `loadflags`, we need to set `ds
movl %eax, %ss movl %eax, %ss
``` ```
Remember that the `__BOOT_DS` is `0x18` (index of data segment in the [Global Descriptor Table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Descriptor_Table)). If `KEEP_SEGMENTS` is set, we jump to the nearest `1f` label or update segment registers with `__BOOT_DS` if it is not set. It is pretty easy, but here is one interesting moment. If you've read the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md), you may remember that we already updated these segment registers right after we switched to [protected mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode) in [arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S). So why do we need to care about values of segment registers again? The answer is easy. The Linux kernel also has a 32-bit boot protocol and if a bootloader uses it to load the Linux kernel all code before the `startup_32` will be missed. In this case, the `startup_32` will be the first entry point of the Linux kernel right after the bootloader and there are no guarantees that segment registers will be in known state. Remember that `__BOOT_DS` is `0x18` (the index of the data segment in the [Global Descriptor Table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Descriptor_Table)). If `KEEP_SEGMENTS` is set, we jump to the nearest `1f` label or update segment registers with `__BOOT_DS` if they are not set. This is all pretty easy, but here's something to consider. If you've read the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md), you may remember that we already updated these segment registers right after we switched to [protected mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode) in [arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/pmjump.S). So why do we need to care about the values in the segment registers again? The answer is easy. The Linux kernel also has a 32-bit boot protocol and if a bootloader uses *that* to load the Linux kernel, all the code before the `startup_32` function will be missed. In this case, the `startup_32` function would be the first entry point to the Linux kernel right after the bootloader and there are no guarantees that the segment registers will be in a known state.
After we have checked the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` flag and put the correct value to the segment registers, the next step is to calculate the difference between where we loaded and compiled to run. Remember that `setup.ld.S` contains following definition: `. = 0` at the start of the `.head.text` section. This means that the code in this section is compiled to run from `0` address. We can see this in `objdump` output: After we have checked the `KEEP_SEGMENTS` flag and set the segment registers to a correct value, the next step is to calculate the difference between where the kernel is compiled to run, and where we loaded it. Remember that `setup.ld.S` contains the following definition: `. = 0` at the start of the `.head.text` section. This means that the code in this section is compiled to run at the address `0`. We can see this in the output of `objdump`:
``` ```
arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux: file format elf64-x86-64 arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux: file format elf64-x86-64
@ -176,14 +176,14 @@ Disassembly of section .head.text:
1: f6 86 11 02 00 00 40 testb $0x40,0x211(%rsi) 1: f6 86 11 02 00 00 40 testb $0x40,0x211(%rsi)
``` ```
The `objdump` util tells us that the address of the `startup_32` is `0` but actually it's not so. Our current goal is to know where actually we are. It is pretty simple to do in [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) because it support `rip` relative addressing, but currently we are in [protected mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode). We will use common pattern to know the address of the `startup_32`. We need to define a label and make a call to this label and pop the top of the stack to a register: The `objdump` util tells us that the address of the `startup_32` function is `0` but that isn't so. We now need to know where we actually are. This is pretty simple to do in [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) because it supports `rip` relative addressing, but currently we are in [protected mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode). We will use a common pattern to find the address of the `startup_32` function. We need to define a label, make a call to it and pop the top of the stack to a register:
```assembly ```assembly
call label call label
label: pop %reg label: pop %reg
``` ```
After this, a `%reg` register will contain the address of a label. Let's look at the similar code which searches address of the `startup_32` in the Linux kernel: After this, the register indicated by `%reg` will contain the address of `label`. Let's look at the code which uses this pattern to search for the `startup_32` function in the Linux kernel:
```assembly ```assembly
leal (BP_scratch+4)(%esi), %esp leal (BP_scratch+4)(%esi), %esp
@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ After this, a `%reg` register will contain the address of a label. Let's look at
subl $1b, %ebp subl $1b, %ebp
``` ```
As you remember from the previous part, the `esi` register contains the address of the [boot_params](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h#L113) structure which was filled before we moved to the protected mode. The `boot_params` structure contains a special field `scratch` with offset `0x1e4`. These four bytes field will be temporary stack for `call` instruction. We are getting the address of the `scratch` field + `4` bytes and putting it in the `esp` register. We add `4` bytes to the base of the `BP_scratch` field because, as just described, it will be a temporary stack and the stack grows from top to down in `x86_64` architecture. So our stack pointer will point to the top of the stack. Next, we can see the pattern that I've described above. We make a call to the `1f` label and put the address of this label to the `ebp` register because we have return address on the top of stack after the `call` instruction will be executed. So, for now we have an address of the `1f` label and now it is easy to get address of the `startup_32`. We just need to subtract address of label from the address which we got from the stack: As you remember from the previous part, the `esi` register contains the address of the [boot_params](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h#L113) structure which was filled before we moved to the protected mode. The `boot_params` structure contains a special field `scratch` with an offset of `0x1e4`. This four byte field is a temporary stack for the `call` instruction. We set `esp` to the address four bytes after the `BP_scratch` field of the `boot_params` structure. We add `4` bytes to the base of the `BP_scratch` field because, as just described, it will be a temporary stack and the stack grows from the top to bottom in the `x86_64` architecture. So our stack pointer will point to the top of the temporary stack. Next, we can see the pattern that I've described above. We make a call to the `1f` label and pop the top of the stack onto `ebp`. This works because `call` stores the return address of the current function on the top of the stack. We now have the address of the `1f` label and can now easily get the address of the `startup_32` function. We just need to subtract the address of the label from the address we got from the stack:
``` ```
startup_32 (0x0) +-----------------------+ startup_32 (0x0) +-----------------------+
@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ startup_32 (0x0) +-----------------------+
+-----------------------+ +-----------------------+
``` ```
The `startup_32` is linked to run at address `0x0` and this means that `1f` has the address `0x0 + offset to 1f`, approximately `0x21` bytes. The `ebp` register contains the real physical address of the `1f` label. So, if we subtract `1f` from the `ebp` we will get the real physical address of the `startup_32`. The Linux kernel [boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt) describes that the base of the protected mode kernel is `0x100000`. We can verify this with [gdb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Debugger). Let's start the debugger and put breakpoint to the `1f` address, which is `0x100021`. If this is correct we will see `0x100021` in the `ebp` register: The `startup_32` function is linked to run at the address `0x0` and this means that `1f` has the address `0x0 + offset to 1f`, which is approximately `0x21` bytes. The `ebp` register contains the real physical address of the `1f` label. So, if we subtract `1f` from the `ebp` register, we will get the real physical address of the `startup_32` function. The Linux kernel [boot protocol](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/x86/boot.txt) saysthe base of the protected mode kernel is `0x100000`. We can verify this with [gdb](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Debugger). Let's start the debugger and add a breakpoint at the address of `1f`, which is `0x100021`. If this is correct we will see the value `0x100021` in the `ebp` register:
``` ```
$ gdb $ gdb
@ -255,12 +255,12 @@ ebp 0x100000 0x100000
... ...
``` ```
Ok, that's true. The address of the `startup_32` is `0x100000`. After we know the address of the `startup_32` label, we can prepare for the transition to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode). Our next goal is to setup the stack and verify that the CPU supports long mode and [SSE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_SIMD_Extensions). Ok, we've verified that the address of the `startup_32` function is `0x100000`. After we know the address of the `startup_32` label, we can prepare for the transition to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode). Our next goal is to setup the stack and verify that the CPU supports long mode and [SSE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_SIMD_Extensions).
Stack setup and CPU verification Stack setup and CPU verification
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We could not setup the stack while we did not know the address of the `startup_32` label. We can imagine the stack as an array and the stack pointer register `esp` must point to the end of this array. Of course, we can define an array in our code, but we need to know its actual address to configure the stack pointer in a correct way. Let's look at the code: We can't set up the stack until we know where in memory the `startup_32` label is. If we imagine the stack as an array, the stack pointer register `esp` must point to the end of it. Of course, we can define an array in our code, but we need to know its actual address to configure the stack pointer correctly. Let's look at the code:
```assembly ```assembly
movl $boot_stack_end, %eax movl $boot_stack_end, %eax
@ -268,7 +268,7 @@ We could not setup the stack while we did not know the address of the `startup_3
movl %eax, %esp movl %eax, %esp
``` ```
The `boot_stack_end` label, defined in the same [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file and located in the [.bss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bss) section: The `boot_stack_end` label is also defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file and is located in the [.bss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.bss) section:
```assembly ```assembly
.bss .bss
@ -280,9 +280,9 @@ boot_stack:
boot_stack_end: boot_stack_end:
``` ```
First of all, we put the address of `boot_stack_end` into the `eax` register, so the `eax` register contains the address of `boot_stack_end` where it was linked, which is `0x0 + boot_stack_end`. To get the real address of `boot_stack_end`, we need to add the real address of the `startup_32`. As you remember, we have found this address above and put it to the `ebp` register. In the end, the register `eax` will contain real address of the `boot_stack_end` and we just need to put to the stack pointer. First of all, we put the address of `boot_stack_end` into the `eax` register, so the `eax` register contains the address of `boot_stack_end` as it was linked, which is `0x0 + boot_stack_end`. To get the real address of `boot_stack_end`, we need to add the real address of the `startup_32` function. We've already found this address and put it into the `ebp` register. In the end, the `eax` register will contain the real address of `boot_stack_end` and we just need to set the stack pointer to it.
After we have set up the stack, next step is CPU verification. As we are going to execute transition to the `long mode`, we need to check that the CPU supports `long mode` and `SSE`. We will do it by the call of the `verify_cpu` function: After we have set up the stack, the next step is CPU verification. Since we are transitioning to `long mode`, we need to check that the CPU supports `long mode` and `SSE`. We will do this with a call to the `verify_cpu` function:
```assembly ```assembly
call verify_cpu call verify_cpu
@ -290,9 +290,9 @@ After we have set up the stack, next step is CPU verification. As we are going t
jnz no_longmode jnz no_longmode
``` ```
This function defined in the [arch/x86/kernel/verify_cpu.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/kernel/verify_cpu.S) assembly file and just contains a couple of calls to the [cpuid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPUID) instruction. This instruction is used for getting information about the processor. In our case, it checks `long mode` and `SSE` support and returns `0` on success or `1` on fail in the `eax` register. This function is defined in the [arch/x86/kernel/verify_cpu.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/kernel/verify_cpu.S) assembly file and just contains a couple of calls to the [cpuid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPUID) instruction. This instruction is used to get information about the processor. In our case, it checks for `long mode` and `SSE` support and sets the `eax` register to `0` on success and `1` on failure.
If the value of the `eax` is not zero, we jump to the `no_longmode` label which just stops the CPU by the call of the `hlt` instruction while no hardware interrupt will not happen: If the value of `eax` is not zero, we jump to the `no_longmode` label which just stops the CPU with the `hlt` instruction while no hardware interrupt can happen:
```assembly ```assembly
no_longmode: no_longmode:
@ -301,12 +301,12 @@ no_longmode:
jmp 1b jmp 1b
``` ```
If the value of the `eax` register is zero, everything is ok and we are able to continue. If the value of the `eax` register is zero, everything is ok and we can continue.
Calculate relocation address Calculate the relocation address
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The next step is calculating relocation address for decompression if needed. First, we need to know what it means for a kernel to be `relocatable`. We already know that the base address of the 32-bit entry point of the Linux kernel is `0x100000`, but that is a 32-bit entry point. The default base address of the Linux kernel is determined by the value of the `CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START` kernel configuration option. Its default value is `0x1000000` or `16 MB`. The main problem here is that if the Linux kernel crashes, a kernel developer must have a `rescue kernel` for [kdump](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/kdump/kdump.txt) which is configured to load from a different address. The Linux kernel provides special configuration option to solve this problem: `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE`. As we can read in the documentation of the Linux kernel: The next step is to calculate the relocation address for decompression if needed. First, we need to know what it means for a kernel to be `relocatable`. We already know that the base address of the 32-bit entry point of the Linux kernel is `0x100000`, but that is a 32-bit entry point. The default base address of the Linux kernel is determined by the value of the `CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START` kernel configuration option. Its default value is `0x1000000` or `16 MB`. The main problem here is that if the Linux kernel crashes, a kernel developer must have a `rescue kernel` for [kdump](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/kdump/kdump.txt) which is configured to load from a different address. The Linux kernel provides a special configuration option to solve this problem: `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE`. As we can read in the documentation of the Linux kernel:
``` ```
This builds a kernel image that retains relocation information This builds a kernel image that retains relocation information
@ -317,13 +317,34 @@ it has been loaded at and the compile time physical address
(CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START) is used as the minimum location. (CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START) is used as the minimum location.
``` ```
In simple terms, this means that the Linux kernel with the same configuration can be booted from different addresses. Technically, this is done by compiling the decompressor as [position independent code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position-independent_code). If we look at [arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile), we will see that the decompressor is indeed compiled with the `-fPIC` flag: Now that we know where to start, let's get to it.
Reload the segments if needed
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As indicated above, we start in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file. We first see the definition of a special section attribute before the definition of the `startup_32` function:
```assembly
__HEAD
.code32
ENTRY(startup_32)
```
`__HEAD` is a macro defined in the [include/linux/init.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/16f73eb02d7e1765ccab3d2018e0bd98eb93d973/include/linux/init.h) header file and expands to the definition of the following section:
```C
#define __HEAD .section ".head.text","ax"
```
Here, `.head.text` is the name of the section and `ax` is a set of flags. In our case, these flags show us that this section is [executable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable
In simple terms, this means that a Linux kernel with this option set can be booted from different addresses. Technically, this is done by compiling the decompressor as [position independent code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position-independent_code). If we look at [arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/Makefile), we can see that the decompressor is indeed compiled with the `-fPIC` flag:
```Makefile ```Makefile
KBUILD_CFLAGS += -fno-strict-aliasing -fPIC KBUILD_CFLAGS += -fno-strict-aliasing -fPIC
``` ```
When we are using position-independent code an address is obtained by adding the address field of the instruction to the value of the program counter. We can load code which uses such addressing from any address. That's why we had to get the real physical address of `startup_32`. Now let's get back to the Linux kernel code. Our current goal is to calculate an address where we can relocate the kernel for decompression. Calculation of this address depends on `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE` kernel configuration option. Let's look at the code: When we are using position-independent code an address is obtained by adding the address field of the instruction to the value of the program counter. We can load code which uses such addressing from any address. That's why we had to get the real physical address of `startup_32`. Now let's get back to the Linux kernel code. Our current goal is to calculate an address where we can relocate the kernel for decompression. The calculation of this address depends on the `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE` kernel configuration option. Let's look at the code:
```assembly ```assembly
#ifdef CONFIG_RELOCATABLE #ifdef CONFIG_RELOCATABLE
@ -339,7 +360,7 @@ When we are using position-independent code an address is obtained by adding the
movl $LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR, %ebx movl $LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR, %ebx
``` ```
Remember that the value of the `ebp` register is the physical address of the `startup_32` label. If the `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE` kernel configuration option is enabled during kernel configuration, we put this address in the `ebx` register, align it to a multiple of `2MB` and compare it with the `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` value. The `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` macro is defined in the [arch/x86/include/asm/boot.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/asm/boot.h) header file and it looks like this: Remember that the value of the `ebp` register is the physical address of the `startup_32` label. If the `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE` kernel configuration option is enabled during kernel configuration, we put this address in the `ebx` register, align it to a multiple of `2MB` and compare it with the result of the `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` macro. `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` is defined in the [arch/x86/include/asm/boot.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/asm/boot.h) header file and it looks like this:
```C ```C
#define LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR ((CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START \ #define LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR ((CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START \
@ -347,9 +368,9 @@ Remember that the value of the `ebp` register is the physical address of the `st
& ~(CONFIG_PHYSICAL_ALIGN - 1)) & ~(CONFIG_PHYSICAL_ALIGN - 1))
``` ```
As we can see it just expands to the aligned `CONFIG_PHYSICAL_ALIGN` value which represents the physical address of where to load the kernel. After comparison of the `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` and value of the `ebx` register, we add the offset from the `startup_32` where to decompress the compressed kernel image. If the `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE` option is not enabled during kernel configuration, we just put the default address where to load kernel and add `z_extract_offset` to it. As we can see it just expands to the aligned `CONFIG_PHYSICAL_ALIGN` value which represents the physical address where the kernel will be loaded. After comparing `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` and the value of the `ebx` register, we add the offset from `startup_32` where we will decompress the compressed kernel image. If the `CONFIG_RELOCATABLE` option is not enabled during kernel configuration, we just add `z_extract_offset` to the default address where the kernel is loaded.
After all of these calculations, we will have `ebp` which contains the address where we loaded it and `ebx` set to the address of where kernel will be moved after decompression. But that is not the end. The compressed kernel image should be moved to the end of the decompression buffer to simplify calculations where kernel will be located later. For this: After all of these calculations, `ebp` will contain the address where we loaded the kernel and `ebx` will contain the address where the decompressed kernel will be relocated. But that is not the end. The compressed kernel image should be moved to the end of the decompression buffer to simplify calculations regarding where the kernel will be located later. For this:
```assembly ```assembly
1: 1:
@ -358,19 +379,19 @@ After all of these calculations, we will have `ebp` which contains the address w
addl %eax, %ebx addl %eax, %ebx
``` ```
we put value from the `boot_params.BP_init_size` (or kernel setup header value from the `hdr.init_size`) to the `eax` register. The `BP_init_size` contains larger value between compressed and uncompressed [vmlinux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux). Next we subtract address of the `_end` symbol from this value and add the result of subtraction to `ebx` register which will stores base address for kernel decompression. we put the value from the `boot_params.BP_init_size` field (or the kernel setup header value from `hdr.init_size`) in the `eax` register. The `BP_init_size` field contains the larger of the compressed and uncompressed [vmlinux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vmlinux) sizes. Next we subtract the address of the `_end` symbol from this value and add the result of the subtraction to the `ebx` register which will store the base address for kernel decompression.
Preparation before entering long mode Preparation before entering long mode
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
When we have the base address where we will relocate the compressed kernel image, we need to do one last step before we can transition to 64-bit mode. First, we need to update the [Global Descriptor Table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Descriptor_Table) with 64-bit segments because an relocatable kernel may be runned at any address below 512G: After we get the address to relocate the compressed kernel image to, we need to do one last step before we can transition to 64-bit mode. First, we need to update the [Global Descriptor Table](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Descriptor_Table) with 64-bit segments because a relocatable kernel is runnable at any address below 512GB:
```assembly ```assembly
addl %ebp, gdt+2(%ebp) addl %ebp, gdt+2(%ebp)
lgdt gdt(%ebp) lgdt gdt(%ebp)
``` ```
Here we adjust base address of the Global Descriptor table to the address where we actually loaded and load the `Global Descriptor Table` with the `lgdt` instruction. Here we adjust the base address of the Global Descriptor table to the address where we actually loaded the kernel and load the `Global Descriptor Table` with the `lgdt` instruction.
To understand the magic with `gdt` offsets we need to look at the definition of the `Global Descriptor Table`. We can find its definition in the same source code [file](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S): To understand the magic with `gdt` offsets we need to look at the definition of the `Global Descriptor Table`. We can find its definition in the same source code [file](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S):
@ -393,11 +414,11 @@ gdt:
gdt_end: gdt_end:
``` ```
We can see that it is located in the `.data` section and contains five descriptors: the first is `32-bit` descriptor for kernel code segment, `64-bit` kernel segment, kernel data segment and two task descriptors. We can see that it is located in the `.data` section and contains five descriptors: the first is a `32-bit` descriptor for the kernel code segment, a `64-bit` kernel segment, a kernel data segment and two task descriptors.
We already loaded the `Global Descriptor Table` in the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md), and now we're doing almost the same here, but descriptors with `CS.L = 1` and `CS.D = 0` for execution in `64` bit mode. As we can see, the definition of the `gdt` starts from two bytes: `gdt_end - gdt` which represents the last byte in the `gdt` table or table limit. The next four bytes contains base address of the `gdt`. We already loaded the `Global Descriptor Table` in the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-3.md), and now we're doing almost the same here, but we set descriptors to use `CS.L = 1` and `CS.D = 0` for execution in `64` bit mode. As we can see, the definition of the `gdt` starts with a two byte value: `gdt_end - gdt` which represents the address of the last byte in the `gdt` table or the table limit. The next four bytes contain the base address of the `gdt`.
After we have loaded the `Global Descriptor Table` with `lgdt` instruction, we must enable [PAE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Address_Extension) by putting the value of `cr4` register into `eax`, setting the 5th bit and loading it back into `cr4`: After we have loaded the `Global Descriptor Table` with the `lgdt` instruction, we must enable [PAE](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Address_Extension) by putting the value of the `cr4` register into `eax`, setting the 5th bit and loading it back into `cr4`:
```assembly ```assembly
movl %cr4, %eax movl %cr4, %eax
@ -405,41 +426,42 @@ After we have loaded the `Global Descriptor Table` with `lgdt` instruction, we m
movl %eax, %cr4 movl %eax, %cr4
``` ```
Now we are almost finished with all preparations before we can move into 64-bit mode. The last step is to build page tables, but before that, here is some information about long mode. Now we are almost finished with the preparations needed to move into 64-bit mode. The last step is to build page tables, but before that, here is some information about long mode.
Long mode Long mode
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The [Long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) is the native mode for [x86_64](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64) processors. First, let's look at some differences between `x86_64` and the `x86`. [Long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) is the native mode for [x86_64](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64) processors. First, let's look at some differences between `x86_64` and `x86`.
The `64-bit` mode provides features such as: `64-bit` mode provides the following features:
* New 8 general purpose registers from `r8` to `r15` + all general purpose registers are 64-bit now; * 8 new general purpose registers from `r8` to `r15`
* 64-bit instruction pointer - `RIP`; * All general purpose registers are 64-bit now
* New operating mode - Long mode; * A 64-bit instruction pointer - `RIP`
* A new operating mode - Long mode;
* 64-Bit Addresses and Operands; * 64-Bit Addresses and Operands;
* RIP Relative Addressing (we will see an example of it in the next parts). * RIP Relative Addressing (we will see an example of this in the coming parts).
Long mode is an extension of legacy protected mode. It consists of two sub-modes: Long mode is an extension of the legacy protected mode. It consists of two sub-modes:
* 64-bit mode; * 64-bit mode;
* compatibility mode. * compatibility mode.
To switch into `64-bit` mode we need to do following things: To switch into `64-bit` mode we need to do the following things:
* Enable [PAE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Address_Extension); * Enable [PAE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Address_Extension);
* Build page tables and load the address of the top level page table into the `cr3` register; * Build page tables and load the address of the top level page table into the `cr3` register;
* Enable `EFER.LME`; * Enable `EFER.LME`;
* Enable paging. * Enable paging.
We already enabled `PAE` by setting the `PAE` bit in the `cr4` control register. Our next goal is to build the structure for [paging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging). We will see this in next paragraph. We already enabled `PAE` by setting the `PAE` bit in the `cr4` control register. Our next goal is to build the structure for [paging](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging). We will discuss this in the next paragraph.
Early page table initialization Early page table initialization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
So, we already know that before we can move into `64-bit` mode, we need to build page tables, so, let's look at the building of early `4G` boot page tables. We already know that before we can move into `64-bit` mode, we need to build page tables. Let's look at how the early `4G` boot page tables are built.
**NOTE: I will not describe the theory of virtual memory here. If you need to know more about it, see links at the end of this part.** **NOTE: I will not describe the theory of virtual memory here. If you want to know more about virtual memory, check out the links at the end of this part.**
The Linux kernel uses `4-level` paging, and we generally build 6 page tables: The Linux kernel uses `4-level` paging, and we generally build 6 page tables:
@ -447,7 +469,7 @@ The Linux kernel uses `4-level` paging, and we generally build 6 page tables:
* One `PDP` or `Page Directory Pointer` table with four entries; * One `PDP` or `Page Directory Pointer` table with four entries;
* Four Page Directory tables with a total of `2048` entries. * Four Page Directory tables with a total of `2048` entries.
Let's look at the implementation of this. First of all, we clear the buffer for the page tables in memory. Every table is `4096` bytes, so we need clear `24` kilobyte buffer: Let's look at how this is implemented. First, we clear the buffer for the page tables in memory. Every table is `4096` bytes, so we need clear a `24` kilobyte buffer:
```assembly ```assembly
leal pgtable(%ebx), %edi leal pgtable(%ebx), %edi
@ -456,11 +478,11 @@ Let's look at the implementation of this. First of all, we clear the buffer for
rep stosl rep stosl
``` ```
We put the address of `pgtable` plus `ebx` (remember that `ebx` contains the address to relocate the kernel for decompression) in the `edi` register, clear the `eax` register and set the `ecx` register to `6144`. We put the address of `pgtable` with an offset of `ebx` (remember that `ebx` points to the location in memory where the kernel will be decompressed later) into the `edi` register, clear the `eax` register and set the `ecx` register to `6144`.
The `rep stosl` instruction will write the value of the `eax` to `edi`, increase value of the `edi` register by `4` and decrease the value of the `ecx` register by `1`. This operation will be repeated while the value of the `ecx` register is greater than zero. That's why we put `6144` or `BOOT_INIT_PGT_SIZE/4` in `ecx`. The `rep stosl` instruction will write the value of `eax` to `edi`, add `4` to `edi` and decrement `ecx` by `1`. This operation will be repeated while the value of the `ecx` register is greater than zero. That's why we put `6144` or `BOOT_INIT_PGT_SIZE/4` in `ecx`.
The `pgtable` is defined at the end of [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly file and is: `pgtable` is defined at the end of the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly file:
```assembly ```assembly
.section ".pgtable","a",@nobits .section ".pgtable","a",@nobits
@ -482,7 +504,7 @@ As we can see, it is located in the `.pgtable` section and its size depends on t
# endif # endif
``` ```
After we have got buffer for the `pgtable` structure, we can start to build the top level page table - `PML4` - with: After we have a buffer for the `pgtable` structure, we can start to build the top level page table - `PML4` - with:
```assembly ```assembly
leal pgtable + 0(%ebx), %edi leal pgtable + 0(%ebx), %edi
@ -490,7 +512,7 @@ After we have got buffer for the `pgtable` structure, we can start to build the
movl %eax, 0(%edi) movl %eax, 0(%edi)
``` ```
Here again, we put the address of the `pgtable` relative to `ebx` or in other words relative to address of the `startup_32` to the `edi` register. Next, we put this address with offset `0x1007` in the `eax` register. The `0x1007` is `4096` bytes which is the size of the `PML4` plus `7`. The `7` here represents flags of the `PML4` entry. In our case, these flags are `PRESENT+RW+USER`. In the end, we just write first the address of the first `PDP` entry to the `PML4`. Here again, we put the address of `pgtable` relative to `ebx` or in other words relative to address of `startup_32` in the `edi` register. Next, we put this address with an offset of `0x1007` into the `eax` register. `0x1007` is the result of adding the size of the `PML4` table which is `4096` or `0x1000` bytes with `7`. The `7` here represents the flags associated with the `PML4` entry. In our case, these flags are `PRESENT+RW+USER`. In the end, we just write the address of the first `PDP` entry to the `PML4` table.
In the next step we will build four `Page Directory` entries in the `Page Directory Pointer` table with the same `PRESENT+RW+USE` flags: In the next step we will build four `Page Directory` entries in the `Page Directory Pointer` table with the same `PRESENT+RW+USE` flags:
@ -505,7 +527,7 @@ In the next step we will build four `Page Directory` entries in the `Page Direct
jnz 1b jnz 1b
``` ```
We put the base address of the page directory pointer which is `4096` or `0x1000` offset from the `pgtable` table in `edi` and the address of the first page directory pointer entry in `eax` register. Put `4` in the `ecx` register, it will be a counter in the following loop and write the address of the first page directory pointer table entry to the `edi` register. After this `edi` will contain the address of the first page directory pointer entry with flags `0x7`. Next we just calculate the address of following page directory pointer entries where each entry is `8` bytes, and write their addresses to `eax`. The last step of building paging structure is the building of the `2048` page table entries with `2-MByte` pages: We set `edi` to the base address of the page directory pointer which is at an offset of `4096` or `0x1000` bytes from the `pgtable` table and `eax` to the address of the first page directory pointer entry. We also set `ecx` to `4` to act as a counter in the following loop and write the address of the first page directory pointer table entry to the `edi` register. After this, `edi` will contain the address of the first page directory pointer entry with flags `0x7`. Next we calculate the address of the following page directory pointer entries — each entry is `8` bytes — and write their addresses to `eax`. The last step in building the paging structure is to build the `2048` page table entries with `2-MByte` pages:
```assembly ```assembly
leal pgtable + 0x2000(%ebx), %edi leal pgtable + 0x2000(%ebx), %edi
@ -518,23 +540,23 @@ We put the base address of the page directory pointer which is `4096` or `0x1000
jnz 1b jnz 1b
``` ```
Here we do almost the same as in the previous example, all entries will be with flags - `$0x00000183` - `PRESENT + WRITE + MBZ`. In the end, we will have `2048` pages with `2-MByte` page or: Here we do almost the same things that we did in the previous example, all entries are associated with these flags - `$0x00000183` - `PRESENT + WRITE + MBZ`. In the end, we will have a page table with `2048` `2-MByte` pages, which represents a 4 Gigabyte block of memory:
```python ```python
>>> 2048 * 0x00200000 >>> 2048 * 0x00200000
4294967296 4294967296
``` ```
`4G` page table. We just finished to build our early page table structure which maps `4` gigabytes of memory and now we can put the address of the high-level page table - `PML4` - in `cr3` control register: Since we've just finished building our early page table structure which maps `4` gigabytes of memory, we can put the address of the high-level page table - `PML4` - into the `cr3` control register:
```assembly ```assembly
leal pgtable(%ebx), %eax leal pgtable(%ebx), %eax
movl %eax, %cr3 movl %eax, %cr3
``` ```
That's all. All preparation are finished and now we can see transition to the long mode. That's all. We are now prepared to transition to long mode.
Transition to the 64-bit mode The transition to 64-bit mode
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
First of all we need to set the `EFER.LME` flag in the [MSR](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-specific_register) to `0xC0000080`: First of all we need to set the `EFER.LME` flag in the [MSR](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-specific_register) to `0xC0000080`:
@ -546,7 +568,7 @@ First of all we need to set the `EFER.LME` flag in the [MSR](http://en.wikipedia
wrmsr wrmsr
``` ```
Here we put the `MSR_EFER` flag (which is defined in [arch/x86/include/asm/msr-index.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/asm/msr-index.h)) in the `ecx` register and call `rdmsr` instruction which reads the [MSR](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-specific_register) register. After `rdmsr` executes, we will have the resulting data in `edx:eax` which depends on the `ecx` value. We check the `EFER_LME` bit with the `btsl` instruction and write data from `eax` to the `MSR` register with the `wrmsr` instruction. Here we put the `MSR_EFER` flag (which is defined in [arch/x86/include/asm/msr-index.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/asm/msr-index.h)) in the `ecx` register and execute the `rdmsr` instruction which reads the [MSR](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-specific_register) register. After `rdmsr` executes, the resulting data is stored in `edx:eax` according to the `MSR` register specified in `ecx`. We check the `EFER_LME` bit with the `btsl` instruction and write data from `edx:eax` back to the `MSR` register with the `wrmsr` instruction.
In the next step, we push the address of the kernel segment code to the stack (we defined it in the GDT) and put the address of the `startup_64` routine in `eax`. In the next step, we push the address of the kernel segment code to the stack (we defined it in the GDT) and put the address of the `startup_64` routine in `eax`.
@ -555,7 +577,7 @@ In the next step, we push the address of the kernel segment code to the stack (w
leal startup_64(%ebp), %eax leal startup_64(%ebp), %eax
``` ```
After this we push this address to the stack and enable paging by setting `PG` and `PE` bits in the `cr0` register: After this we push `eax` to the stack and enable paging by setting the `PG` and `PE` bits in the `cr0` register:
```assembly ```assembly
pushl %eax pushl %eax
@ -563,15 +585,13 @@ After this we push this address to the stack and enable paging by setting `PG` a
movl %eax, %cr0 movl %eax, %cr0
``` ```
and execute: We then execute the `lret` instruction:
```assembly ```assembly
lret lret
``` ```
instruction. Remember that we pushed the address of the `startup_64` function to the stack in the previous step. The CPU extracts `startup_64`'s address from the stack and jumps there.
Remember that we pushed the address of the `startup_64` function to the stack in the previous step, and after the `lret` instruction, the CPU extracts the address of it and jumps there.
After all of these steps we're finally in 64-bit mode: After all of these steps we're finally in 64-bit mode:
@ -589,11 +609,11 @@ That's all!
Conclusion Conclusion
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is the end of the fourth part linux kernel booting process. If you have questions or suggestions, ping me in twitter [0xAX](https://twitter.com/0xAX), drop me [email](anotherworldofworld@gmail.com) or just create an [issue](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/issues/new). This is the end of the fourth part of the linux kernel booting process. If you have any questions or suggestions, ping me on twitter [0xAX](https://twitter.com/0xAX), drop me an [email](anotherworldofworld@gmail.com) or just create an [issue](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/issues/new).
In the next part, we will see kernel decompression and much more. In the next part, we will learn about many things, including how kernel decompression works.
**Please note that English is not my first language and I am really sorry for any inconvenience. If you find any mistakes please send me PR to [linux-insides](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-internals).** **Please note that English is not my first language and I am really sorry for any inconvenience. If you find any mistakes please send a PR to [linux-insides](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-internals).**
Links Links
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------

102
Booting/linux-bootstrap-5.md
View File

@ -1,15 +1,15 @@
Kernel booting process. Part 5. Kernel booting process. Part 5.
================================================================================ ================================================================================
Kernel decompression Kernel Decompression
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is the fifth part of the `Kernel booting process` series. We saw transition to the 64-bit mode in the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-4.md#transition-to-the-long-mode) and we will continue from this point in this part. We will see the last steps before we jump to the kernel code as preparation for kernel decompression, relocation and directly kernel decompression. So... let's start to dive in the kernel code again. This is the fifth part of the `Kernel booting process` series. We went over the transition to 64-bit mode in the previous [part](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-4.md#transition-to-the-long-mode) and we will continue where we left off in this part. We will study the steps taken to prepare for kernel decompression, relocation and the process of kernel decompression itself. So... let's dive into the kernel code again.
Preparation before kernel decompression Preparing to Decompress the Kernel
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
We stopped right before the jump on the `64-bit` entry point - `startup_64` which is located in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) source code file. We already saw the jump to the `startup_64` in the `startup_32`: We stopped right before the jump to the `64-bit` entry point - `startup_64` which is located in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) source code file. We already covered the jump to `startup_64` from `startup_32` in the previous part:
```assembly ```assembly
pushl $__KERNEL_CS pushl $__KERNEL_CS
@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ We stopped right before the jump on the `64-bit` entry point - `startup_64` whic
lret lret
``` ```
in the previous part. Since we loaded the new `Global Descriptor Table` and there was CPU transition in other mode (`64-bit` mode in our case), we can see the setup of the data segments: Since we have loaded a new `Global Descriptor Table` and the CPU has transitioned to a new mode (`64-bit` mode in our case), we set up the segment registers again at the beginning of the `startup_64` function:
```assembly ```assembly
.code64 .code64
@ -38,9 +38,9 @@ ENTRY(startup_64)
movl %eax, %gs movl %eax, %gs
``` ```
in the beginning of the `startup_64`. All segment registers besides `cs` register now reseted as we joined into the `long mode`. All segment registers besides the `cs` register are now reset in `long mode`.
The next step is computation of difference between where the kernel was compiled and where it was loaded: The next step is to compute the difference between the location the kernel was compiled to be loaded at and the location where it is actually loaded:
```assembly ```assembly
#ifdef CONFIG_RELOCATABLE #ifdef CONFIG_RELOCATABLE
@ -60,9 +60,9 @@ The next step is computation of difference between where the kernel was compiled
addq %rbp, %rbx addq %rbp, %rbx
``` ```
The `rbp` contains the decompressed kernel start address and after this code executes `rbx` register will contain address to relocate the kernel code for decompression. We already saw code like this in the `startup_32` ( you can read about it in the previous part - [Calculate relocation address](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-4.md#calculate-relocation-address)), but we need to do this calculation again because the bootloader can use 64-bit boot protocol and `startup_32` just will not be executed in this case. The `rbp` register contains the decompressed kernel's start address. After this code executes, the `rbx` register will contain the address where the kernel code will be relocated to for decompression. We've already done this before in the `startup_32` function ( you can read about this in the previous part - [Calculate relocation address](https://github.com/0xAX/linux-insides/blob/v4.16/Booting/linux-bootstrap-4.md#calculate-relocation-address)), but we need to do this calculation again because the bootloader can use the 64-bit boot protocol now and `startup_32` is no longer being executed.
In the next step we can see setup of the stack pointer, resetting of the flags register and setup `GDT` again because of in a case of `64-bit` protocol `32-bit` code segment can be omitted by bootloader: In the next step we set up the stack pointer, reset the flags register and set up the `GDT` again to overwrite the `32-bit` specific values with those from the `64-bit` protocol:
```assembly ```assembly
leaq boot_stack_end(%rbx), %rsp leaq boot_stack_end(%rbx), %rsp
@ -75,9 +75,9 @@ In the next step we can see setup of the stack pointer, resetting of the flags r
popfq popfq
``` ```
If you look at the Linux kernel source code after `lgdt gdt64(%rip)` instruction, you will see that there is some additional code. This code builds trampoline to enable [5-level pagging](https://lwn.net/Articles/708526/) if need. We will consider only 4-level paging in this books, so this code will be omitted. If you take a look at the code after the `lgdt gdt64(%rip)` instruction, you will see that there is some additional code. This code builds the trampoline to enable [5-level pagging](https://lwn.net/Articles/708526/) if needed. We will only consider 4-level paging in this book, so this code will be omitted.
As you can see above, the `rbx` register contains the start address of the kernel decompressor code and we just put this address with `boot_stack_end` offset to the `rsp` register which represents pointer to the top of the stack. After this step, the stack will be correct. You can find definition of the `boot_stack_end` in the end of [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file: As you can see above, the `rbx` register contains the start address of the kernel decompressor code and we just put this address with an offset of `boot_stack_end` in the `rsp` register which points to the top of the stack. After this step, the stack will be correct. You can find the definition of the `boot_stack_end` constant in the end of the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) assembly source code file:
```assembly ```assembly
.bss .bss
@ -89,9 +89,9 @@ boot_stack:
boot_stack_end: boot_stack_end:
``` ```
It located in the end of the `.bss` section, right before the `.pgtable`. If you will look into [arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S) linker script, you will find Definition of the `.bss` and `.pgtable` there. It located in the end of the `.bss` section, right before `.pgtable`. If you peek inside the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S) linker script, you will find the definitions of `.bss` and `.pgtable` there.
As we set the stack, now we can copy the compressed kernel to the address that we got above, when we calculated the relocation address of the decompressed kernel. Before details, let's look at this assembly code: Since the stack is now correct, we can copy the compressed kernel to the address that we got above, when we calculated the relocation address of the decompressed kernel. Before we get into the details, let's take a look at this assembly code:
```assembly ```assembly
pushq %rsi pushq %rsi
@ -105,9 +105,11 @@ As we set the stack, now we can copy the compressed kernel to the address that w
popq %rsi popq %rsi
``` ```
First of all we push `rsi` to the stack. We need preserve the value of `rsi`, because this register now stores a pointer to the `boot_params` which is real mode structure that contains booting related data (you must remember this structure, we filled it in the start of kernel setup). In the end of this code we'll restore the pointer to the `boot_params` into `rsi` again. This set of instructions copies the compressed kernel over to where it will be decompressed.
The next two `leaq` instructions calculates effective addresses of the `rip` and `rbx` with `_bss - 8` offset and put it to the `rsi` and `rdi`. Why do we calculate these addresses? Actually the compressed kernel image is located between this copying code (from `startup_32` to the current code) and the decompression code. You can verify this by looking at the linker script - [arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S): First of all we push `rsi` to the stack. We need preserve the value of `rsi`, because this register now stores a pointer to `boot_params` which is a real mode structure that contains booting related data (remember, this structure was populated at the start of the kernel setup). We pop the pointer to `boot_params` back to `rsi` after we execute this code.
The next two `leaq` instructions calculate the effective addresses of the `rip` and `rbx` registers with an offset of `_bss - 8` and assign the results to `rsi` and `rdi` respectively. Why do we calculate these addresses? The compressed kernel image is located between this code (from `startup_32` to the current code) and the decompression code. You can verify this by looking at this linker script - [arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S):
``` ```
. = 0; . = 0;
@ -127,7 +129,7 @@ The next two `leaq` instructions calculates effective addresses of the `rip` and
} }
``` ```
Note that `.head.text` section contains `startup_32`. You may remember it from the previous part: Note that the `.head.text` section contains `startup_32`. You may remember it from the previous part:
```assembly ```assembly
__HEAD __HEAD
@ -138,7 +140,7 @@ ENTRY(startup_32)
... ...
``` ```
The `.text` section contains decompression code: The `.text` section contains the decompression code:
```assembly ```assembly
.text .text
@ -152,21 +154,21 @@ relocated:
... ...
``` ```
And `.rodata..compressed` contains the compressed kernel image. So `rsi` will contain the absolute address of `_bss - 8`, and `rdi` will contain the relocation relative address of `_bss - 8`. As we store these addresses in registers, we put the address of `_bss` in the `rcx` register. As you can see in the `vmlinux.lds.S` linker script, it's located at the end of all sections with the setup/kernel code. Now we can start to copy data from `rsi` to `rdi`, `8` bytes at the time, with the `movsq` instruction. And `.rodata..compressed` contains the compressed kernel image. So `rsi` will contain the absolute address of `_bss - 8`, and `rdi` will contain the relocation relative address of `_bss - 8`. In the same way we store these addresses in registers, we put the address of `_bss` in the `rcx` register. As you can see in the `vmlinux.lds.S` linker script, it's located at the end of all sections with the setup/kernel code. Now we can start copying data from `rsi` to `rdi`, `8` bytes at a time, with the `movsq` instruction.
Note that there is an `std` instruction before data copying: it sets the `DF` flag, which means that `rsi` and `rdi` will be decremented. In other words, we will copy the bytes backwards. At the end, we clear the `DF` flag with the `cld` instruction, and restore `boot_params` structure to `rsi`. Note that we execute an `std` instruction before copying the data. This sets the `DF` flag, which means that `rsi` and `rdi` will be decremented. In other words, we will copy the bytes backwards. At the end, we clear the `DF` flag with the `cld` instruction, and restore the `boot_params` structure to `rsi`.
Now we have the address of the `.text` section address after relocation, and we can jump to it: Now we have a pointer to the `.text` section's address after relocation, and we can jump to it:
```assembly ```assembly
leaq relocated(%rbx), %rax leaq relocated(%rbx), %rax
jmp *%rax jmp *%rax
``` ```
Last preparation before kernel decompression The final touches before kernel decompression
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In the previous paragraph we saw that the `.text` section starts with the `relocated` label. The first thing it does is clearing the `bss` section with: In the previous paragraph we saw that the `.text` section starts with the `relocated` label. The first thing we do is to clear the `bss` section with:
```assembly ```assembly
xorl %eax, %eax xorl %eax, %eax
@ -177,9 +179,9 @@ In the previous paragraph we saw that the `.text` section starts with the `reloc
rep stosq rep stosq
``` ```
We need to initialize the `.bss` section, because we'll soon jump to [C](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29) code. Here we just clear `eax`, put the address of `_bss` in `rdi` and `_ebss` in `rcx`, and fill it with zeros with the `rep stosq` instruction. We need to initialize the `.bss` section, because we'll soon jump to [C](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29) code. Here we just clear `eax`, put the addresses of `_bss` in `rdi` and `_ebss` in `rcx`, and fill `.bss` with zeros with the `rep stosq` instruction.
At the end, we can see the call to the `extract_kernel` function: At the end, we can see a call to the `extract_kernel` function:
```assembly ```assembly
pushq %rsi pushq %rsi
@ -193,21 +195,21 @@ At the end, we can see the call to the `extract_kernel` function:
popq %rsi popq %rsi
``` ```
Again we set `rdi` to a pointer to the `boot_params` structure and preserve it on the stack. In the same time we set `rsi` to point to the area which should be used for kernel uncompression. The last step is preparation of the `extract_kernel` parameters and call of this function which will uncompres the kernel. The `extract_kernel` function is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c) source code file and takes six arguments: Like before, we push `rsi` onto the stack to preserve the pointer to `boot_params`. We also copy the contents of `rsi` to `rdi`. Then, we set `rsi` to point to the area where the kernel will be decompressed. The last step is to prepare the parameters for the `extract_kernel` function and call it to decompress the kernel. The `extract_kernel` function is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c) source code file and takes six arguments:
* `rmode` - pointer to the [boot_params](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h) structure which is filled by bootloader or during early kernel initialization; * `rmode` - a pointer to the [boot_params](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/uapi/asm/bootparam.h) structure which is filled by either the bootloader or during early kernel initialization;
* `heap` - pointer to the `boot_heap` which represents start address of the early boot heap; * `heap` - a pointer to `boot_heap` which represents the start address of the early boot heap;
* `input_data` - pointer to the start of the compressed kernel or in other words pointer to the `arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.bin.bz2`; * `input_data` - a pointer to the start of the compressed kernel or in other words, a pointer to the `arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.bin.bz2` file;
* `input_len` - size of the compressed kernel; * `input_len` - the size of the compressed kernel;
* `output` - start address of the future decompressed kernel; * `output` - the start address of the decompressed kernel;
* `output_len` - size of decompressed kernel; * `output_len` - the size of the decompressed kernel;
All arguments will be passed through the registers according to [System V Application Binary Interface](http://www.x86-64.org/documentation/abi.pdf). We've finished all preparation and can now look at the kernel decompression. All arguments will be passed through registers as per the [System V Application Binary Interface](http://www.x86-64.org/documentation/abi.pdf). We've finished all the preparations and can now decompress the kernel.
Kernel decompression Kernel decompression
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
As we saw in previous paragraph, the `extract_kernel` function is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c) source code file and takes six arguments. This function starts with the video/console initialization that we already saw in the previous parts. We need to do this again because we don't know if we started in [real mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode) or a bootloader was used, or whether the bootloader used the `32` or `64-bit` boot protocol. As we saw in the previous paragraph, the `extract_kernel` function is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c) source code file and takes six arguments. This function starts with the video/console initialization that we already saw in the previous parts. We need to do this again because we don't know if we started in [real mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode) or if a bootloader was used, or whether the bootloader used the `32` or `64-bit` boot protocol.
After the first initialization steps, we store pointers to the start of the free memory and to the end of it: After the first initialization steps, we store pointers to the start of the free memory and to the end of it:
@ -216,26 +218,26 @@ free_mem_ptr = heap;
free_mem_end_ptr = heap + BOOT_HEAP_SIZE; free_mem_end_ptr = heap + BOOT_HEAP_SIZE;
``` ```
where the `heap` is the second parameter of the `extract_kernel` function which we got in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S): Here, `heap` is the second parameter of the `extract_kernel` function as passed to it in [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S):
```assembly ```assembly
leaq boot_heap(%rip), %rsi leaq boot_heap(%rip), %rsi
``` ```
As you saw above, the `boot_heap` is defined as: As you saw above, `boot_heap` is defined as:
```assembly ```assembly
boot_heap: boot_heap:
.fill BOOT_HEAP_SIZE, 1, 0 .fill BOOT_HEAP_SIZE, 1, 0
``` ```
where the `BOOT_HEAP_SIZE` is macro which expands to `0x10000` (`0x400000` in a case of `bzip2` kernel) and represents the size of the heap. where `BOOT_HEAP_SIZE` is a macro which expands to `0x10000` (`0x400000` in thecase of a `bzip2` kernel) and represents the size of the heap.
After heap pointers initialization, the next step is the call of the `choose_random_location` function from [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c) source code file. As we can guess from the function name, it chooses the memory location where the kernel image will be decompressed. It may look weird that we need to find or even `choose` location where to decompress the compressed kernel image, but the Linux kernel supports [kASLR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization) which allows decompression of the kernel into a random address, for security reasons. After we initialize the heap pointers, the next step is to call the `choose_random_location` function from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c) source code file. As we can guess from the function name, it chooses a memory location to write the decompressed kernel to. It may look weird that we need to find or even `choose` where to decompress the compressed kernel image, but the Linux kernel supports [kASLR](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization) which allows decompression of the kernel into a random address, for security reasons.
We will not consider randomization of the Linux kernel load address in this part, but will do it in the next part. We'll take a look at how the kernel's load address is randomized in the next part.
Now let's back to [misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c). After getting the address for the kernel image, there need to be some checks to be sure that the retrieved random address is correctly aligned and address is not wrong: Now let's get back to [misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c). After getting the address for the kernel image, we need to check that the random address we got is correctly aligned, and in general, not wrong:
```C ```C
if ((unsigned long)output & (MIN_KERNEL_ALIGN - 1)) if ((unsigned long)output & (MIN_KERNEL_ALIGN - 1))
@ -260,16 +262,16 @@ if (virt_addr != LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR)
After all these checks we will see the familiar message: After all these checks we will see the familiar message:
``` ```
Decompressing Linux... Decompressing Linux...
``` ```
and call the `__decompress` function: Now, we call the `__decompress` function to decompress the kernel:
```C ```C
__decompress(input_data, input_len, NULL, NULL, output, output_len, NULL, error); __decompress(input_data, input_len, NULL, NULL, output, output_len, NULL, error);
``` ```
which will decompress the kernel. The implementation of the `__decompress` function depends on what decompression algorithm was chosen during kernel compilation: The implementation of the `__decompress` function depends on what decompression algorithm was chosen during kernel compilation:
```C ```C
#ifdef CONFIG_KERNEL_GZIP #ifdef CONFIG_KERNEL_GZIP
@ -297,7 +299,7 @@ which will decompress the kernel. The implementation of the `__decompress` funct
#endif #endif
``` ```
After kernel is decompressed, the last two functions are `parse_elf` and `handle_relocations`. The main point of these functions is to move the uncompressed kernel image to the correct memory place. The fact is that the decompression will decompress [in-place](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-place_algorithm), and we still need to move kernel to the correct address. As we already know, the kernel image is an [ELF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format) executable, so the main goal of the `parse_elf` function is to move loadable segments to the correct address. We can see loadable segments in the output of the `readelf` program: After the kernel is decompressed, two more functions are called: `parse_elf` and `handle_relocations`. The main point of these functions is to move the decompressed kernel image to its correct place in memory. This is because the decompression is done [in-place](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-place_algorithm), and we still need to move the kernel to the correct address. As we already know, the kernel image is an [ELF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format) executable. The main goal of the `parse_elf` function is to move loadable segments to the correct address. We can see the kernel's loadable segments in the output of the `readelf` program:
``` ```
readelf -l vmlinux readelf -l vmlinux
@ -319,7 +321,7 @@ Program Headers:
0x0000000000138000 0x000000000029b000 RWE 200000 0x0000000000138000 0x000000000029b000 RWE 200000
``` ```
The goal of the `parse_elf` function is to load these segments to the `output` address we got from the `choose_random_location` function. This function starts with checking the [ELF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format) signature: The goal of the `parse_elf` function is to load these segments to the `output` address we got from the `choose_random_location` function. This function starts by checking the [ELF](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format) signature:
```C ```C
Elf64_Ehdr ehdr; Elf64_Ehdr ehdr;
@ -336,7 +338,7 @@ if (ehdr.e_ident[EI_MAG0] != ELFMAG0 ||
} }
``` ```
and if it's not valid, it prints an error message and halts. If we got a valid `ELF` file, we go through all program headers from the given `ELF` file and copy all loadable segments with correct 2 megabytes aligned address to the output buffer: If the ELF header is not valid, it prints an error message and halts. If we have a valid `ELF` file, we go through all the program headers from the given `ELF` file and copy all loadable segments with correct 2 megabyte aligned addresses to the output buffer:
```C ```C
for (i = 0; i < ehdr.e_phnum; i++) { for (i = 0; i < ehdr.e_phnum; i++) {
@ -347,7 +349,7 @@ and if it's not valid, it prints an error message and halts. If we got a valid `
#ifdef CONFIG_X86_64 #ifdef CONFIG_X86_64
if ((phdr->p_align % 0x200000) != 0) if ((phdr->p_align % 0x200000) != 0)
error("Alignment of LOAD segment isn't multiple of 2MB"); error("Alignment of LOAD segment isn't multiple of 2MB");
#endif #endif
#ifdef CONFIG_RELOCATABLE #ifdef CONFIG_RELOCATABLE
dest = output; dest = output;
dest += (phdr->p_paddr - LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR); dest += (phdr->p_paddr - LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR);
@ -366,9 +368,9 @@ That's all.
From this moment, all loadable segments are in the correct place. From this moment, all loadable segments are in the correct place.
The next step after the `parse_elf` function is the call of the `handle_relocations` function. Implementation of this function depends on the `CONFIG_X86_NEED_RELOCS` kernel configuration option and if it is enabled, this function adjusts addresses in the kernel image, and is called only if the `CONFIG_RANDOMIZE_BASE` configuration option was enabled during kernel configuration. Implementation of the `handle_relocations` function is easy enough. This function subtracts value of the `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` from the value of the base load address of the kernel and thus we obtain the difference between where the kernel was linked to load and where it was actually loaded. After this we can perform kernel relocation as we know actual address where the kernel was loaded, its address where it was linked to run and relocation table which is in the end of the kernel image. The next step after the `parse_elf` function is to call the `handle_relocations` function. The implementation of this function depends on the `CONFIG_X86_NEED_RELOCS` kernel configuration option and if it is enabled, this function adjusts addresses in the kernel image. This function is also only called if the `CONFIG_RANDOMIZE_BASE` configuration option was enabled during kernel configuration. The implementation of the `handle_relocations` function is easy enough. This function subtracts the value of `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` from the value of the base load address of the kernel and thus we obtain the difference between where the kernel was linked to load and where it was actually loaded. After this we can relocate the kernel since we know the actual address where the kernel was loaded, the address where it was linked to run and the relocation table which is at the end of the kernel image.
After the kernel is relocated, we return back from the `extract_kernel` to [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S). After the kernel is relocated, we return from the `extract_kernel` function to [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S).
The address of the kernel will be in the `rax` register and we jump to it: The address of the kernel will be in the `rax` register and we jump to it:
@ -381,9 +383,9 @@ That's all. Now we are in the kernel!
Conclusion Conclusion
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is the end of the fifth part about linux kernel booting process. We will not see posts about kernel booting anymore (maybe updates to this and previous posts), but there will be many posts about other kernel internals. This is the end of the fifth part about the linux kernel booting process. We will not see any more posts about the kernel booting process (there may be updates to this and previous posts though), but there will be many posts about other kernel internals.
Next chapter will describe more advanced details about linux kernel booting process, like a load address randomization and etc. The Next chapter will describe more advanced details about linux kernel booting process, like load address randomization and etc.
If you have any questions or suggestions write me a comment or ping me in [twitter](https://twitter.com/0xAX). If you have any questions or suggestions write me a comment or ping me in [twitter](https://twitter.com/0xAX).

116
Booting/linux-bootstrap-6.md
View File

@ -4,9 +4,9 @@ Kernel booting process. Part 6.
Introduction Introduction
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is the sixth part of the `Kernel booting process` series. In the [previous part](linux-bootstrap-5.md) we have seen the end of the kernel boot process. But we have skipped some important advanced parts. This is the sixth part of the `Kernel booting process` series. In the [previous part](linux-bootstrap-5.md) we took a look at the final stages of the Linux kernel boot process. But we have skipped some important, more advanced parts.
As you may remember the entry point of the Linux kernel is the `start_kernel` function from the [main.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/init/main.c) source code file started to execute at `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR` address. This address depends on the `CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START` kernel configuration option which is `0x1000000` by default: As you may remember, the entry point of the Linux kernel is the `start_kernel` function defined in the [main.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/init/main.c) source code file. This function is executed at the address stored in `LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR`. and depends on the `CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START` kernel configuration option, which is `0x1000000` by default:
``` ```
config PHYSICAL_START config PHYSICAL_START
@ -19,18 +19,18 @@ config PHYSICAL_START
... ...
``` ```
This value may be changed during kernel configuration, but also load address can be selected as a random value. For this purpose the `CONFIG_RANDOMIZE_BASE` kernel configuration option should be enabled during kernel configuration. This value may be changed during kernel configuration, but the load address can also be configured to be a random value. For this purpose, the `CONFIG_RANDOMIZE_BASE` kernel configuration option should be enabled during kernel configuration.
In this case a physical address at which Linux kernel image will be decompressed and loaded will be randomized. This part considers the case when this option is enabled and load address of the kernel image will be randomized for [security reasons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization). Now, the physical address where the Linux kernel image will be decompressed and loaded will be randomized. This part considers the case when the `CONFIG_RANDOMIZE_BASE` option is enabled and the load address of the kernel image is randomized for [security reasons](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization).
Initialization of page tables Page Table Initialization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Before the kernel decompressor will start to find random memory range where the kernel will be decompressed and loaded, the identity mapped page tables should be initialized. If a [bootloader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting) used [16-bit or 32-bit boot protocol](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/Documentation/x86/boot.txt), we already have page tables. But in any case, we may need new pages by demand if the kernel decompressor selects memory range outside of them. That's why we need to build new identity mapped page tables. Before the kernel decompressor can look for a random memory range to decompress and load the kernel to, the identity mapped page tables should be initialized. If the [bootloader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting) used the [16-bit or 32-bit boot protocol](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/Documentation/x86/boot.txt), we already have page tables. But, there may be problems if the kernel decompressor selects a memory range which is valid only in a 64-bit context. That's why we need to build new identity mapped page tables.
Yes, building of identity mapped page tables is the one of the first step during randomization of load address. But before we will consider it, let's try to remember where did we come from to this point. Indeed, the first step in randomizing the kernel load address is to build new identity mapped page tables. But first, let's reflect on how we got to this point.
In the [previous part](linux-bootstrap-5.md), we saw transition to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) and jump to the kernel decompressor entry point - `extract_kernel` function. The randomization stuff starts here from the call of the: In the [previous part](linux-bootstrap-5.md), we followed the transition to [long mode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode) and jumped to the kernel decompressor entry point - the `extract_kernel` function. The randomization stuff begins with a call to this function:
```C ```C
void choose_random_location(unsigned long input, void choose_random_location(unsigned long input,
@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ void choose_random_location(unsigned long input,
{} {}
``` ```
function. As you may see, this function takes following five parameters: This function takes five parameters:
* `input`; * `input`;
* `input_size`; * `input_size`;
@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ function. As you may see, this function takes following five parameters:
* `output_isze`; * `output_isze`;
* `virt_addr`. * `virt_addr`.
Let's try to understand what these parameters are. The first `input` parameter came from parameters of the `extract_kernel` function from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c) source code file: Let's try to understand what these parameters are. The first parameter, `input` is just the `input_data` parameter of the `extract_kernel` function from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/misc.c) source code file, cast to `unsigned long`:
```C ```C
asmlinkage __visible void *extract_kernel(void *rmode, memptr heap, asmlinkage __visible void *extract_kernel(void *rmode, memptr heap,
@ -71,13 +71,13 @@ asmlinkage __visible void *extract_kernel(void *rmode, memptr heap,
} }
``` ```
This parameter is passed from assembler code: This parameter is passed through assembly from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S)source code file:
```C ```C
leaq input_data(%rip), %rdx leaq input_data(%rip), %rdx
``` ```
from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S). The `input_data` is generated by the little [mkpiggy](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/mkpiggy.c) program. If you have compiled linux kernel source code under your hands, you may find the generated file by this program which should be placed in the `linux/arch/x86/boot/compressed/piggy.S`. In my case this file looks: `input_data` is generated by the little [mkpiggy](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/mkpiggy.c) program. If you've tried compiling the Linux kernel yourself, you may find the output generated by this program in the `linux/arch/x86/boot/compressed/piggy.S` source code file. In my case this file looks like this:
```assembly ```assembly
.section ".rodata..compressed","a",@progbits .section ".rodata..compressed","a",@progbits
@ -91,21 +91,21 @@ input_data:
input_data_end: input_data_end:
``` ```
As you may see it contains four global symbols. The first two `z_input_len` and `z_output_len` which are sizes of compressed and uncompressed `vmlinux.bin.gz`. The third is our `input_data` and as you may see it points to linux kernel image in raw binary format (all debugging symbols, comments and relocation information are stripped). And the last `input_data_end` points to the end of the compressed linux image. As you can see, it contains four global symbols. The first two, `z_input_len` and `z_output_len` are the sizes of the compressed and uncompressed `vmlinux.bin.gz` archive. The third is our `input_data` parameter which points to the linux kernel image's raw binary (stripped of all debugging symbols, comments and relocation information). The last parameter, `input_data_end`, points to the end of the compressed linux image.
So, our first parameter of the `choose_random_location` function is the pointer to the compressed kernel image that is embedded into the `piggy.o` object file. So, the first parameter to the `choose_random_location` function is the pointer to the compressed kernel image that is embedded into the `piggy.o` object file.
The second parameter of the `choose_random_location` function is the `z_input_len` that we have seen just now. The second parameter of the `choose_random_location` function is `z_input_len`.
The third and fourth parameters of the `choose_random_location` function are address where to place decompressed kernel image and the length of decompressed kernel image respectively. The address where to put decompressed kernel came from [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) and it is address of the `startup_32` aligned to 2 megabytes boundary. The size of the decompressed kernel came from the same `piggy.S` and it is `z_output_len`. The third and fourth parameters of the `choose_random_location` function are the address of the decompressed kernel image and its length respectively. The decompressed kernel's address came from the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) source code file and is the address of the `startup_32` function aligned to a 2 megabyte boundary. The size of the decompressed kernel is given by `z_output_len` which, again, is found in `piggy.S`.
The last parameter of the `choose_random_location` function is the virtual address of the kernel load address. As we may see, by default it coincides with the default physical load address: The last parameter of the `choose_random_location` function is the virtual address of the kernel load address. As can be seen, by default, it coincides with the default physical load address:
```C ```C
unsigned long virt_addr = LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR; unsigned long virt_addr = LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR;
``` ```
which depends on kernel configuration: The physical load address is defined by the configuration options:
```C ```C
#define LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR ((CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START \ #define LOAD_PHYSICAL_ADDR ((CONFIG_PHYSICAL_START \
@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ which depends on kernel configuration:
& ~(CONFIG_PHYSICAL_ALIGN - 1)) & ~(CONFIG_PHYSICAL_ALIGN - 1))
``` ```
Now, as we considered parameters of the `choose_random_location` function, let's look at implementation of it. This function starts from the checking of `nokaslr` option in the kernel command line: We've covered `choose_random_location`'s parameters, so let's look at its implementation. This function starts by checking the `nokaslr` option in the kernel command line:
```C ```C
if (cmdline_find_option_bool("nokaslr")) { if (cmdline_find_option_bool("nokaslr")) {
@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ if (cmdline_find_option_bool("nokaslr")) {
} }
``` ```
and if the options was given we exit from the `choose_random_location` function ad kernel load address will not be randomized. Related command line options can be found in the [kernel documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/Documentation/admin-guide/kernel-parameters.rst): We exit `choose_random_location` if the option is specified, leaving the kernel load address unrandomized. Information related to this can be found in the [kernel's documentation](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/Documentation/admin-guide/kernel-parameters.rst):
``` ```
kaslr/nokaslr [X86] kaslr/nokaslr [X86]
@ -140,13 +140,13 @@ Let's assume that we didn't pass `nokaslr` to the kernel command line and the `C
boot_params->hdr.loadflags |= KASLR_FLAG; boot_params->hdr.loadflags |= KASLR_FLAG;
``` ```
and the next step is the call of the: Now, we call another function:
```C ```C
initialize_identity_maps(); initialize_identity_maps();
``` ```
function which is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c) source code file. This function starts from initialization of `mapping_info` an instance of the `x86_mapping_info` structure: The `initialize_identity_maps` function is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c) source code file. This function starts by initialising an instance of the `x86_mapping_info` structure called `mapping_info`:
```C ```C
mapping_info.alloc_pgt_page = alloc_pgt_page; mapping_info.alloc_pgt_page = alloc_pgt_page;
@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ mapping_info.page_flag = __PAGE_KERNEL_LARGE_EXEC | sev_me_mask;
mapping_info.kernpg_flag = _KERNPG_TABLE; mapping_info.kernpg_flag = _KERNPG_TABLE;
``` ```
The `x86_mapping_info` structure is defined in the [arch/x86/include/asm/init.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/asm/init.h) header file and looks: The `x86_mapping_info` structure is defined in the [arch/x86/include/asm/init.h](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/include/asm/init.h) header file and looks like this:
```C ```C
struct x86_mapping_info { struct x86_mapping_info {
@ -168,18 +168,18 @@ struct x86_mapping_info {
}; };
``` ```
This structure provides information about memory mappings. As you may remember from the previous part, we already setup'ed initial page tables from 0 up to `4G`. For now we may need to access memory above `4G` to load kernel at random position. So, the `initialize_identity_maps` function executes initialization of a memory region for a possible needed new page table. First of all let's try to look at the definition of the `x86_mapping_info` structure. This structure provides information about memory mappings. As you may remember from the previous part, we have already set up page tables to cover the range `0` to `4G`. This won't do since we might generate a randomized address outside of the 4 gigabyte range. So, the `initialize_identity_maps` function initializes the memory for a new page table entry. First, let's take a look at the definition of the `x86_mapping_info` structure.
The `alloc_pgt_page` is a callback function that will be called to allocate space for a page table entry. The `context` field is an instance of the `alloc_pgt_data` structure in our case which will be used to track allocated page tables. The `page_flag` and `kernpg_flag` fields are page flags. The first represents flags for `PMD` or `PUD` entries. The second `kernpg_flag` field represents flags for kernel pages which can be overridden later. The `direct_gbpages` field represents support for huge pages and the last `offset` field represents offset between kernel virtual addresses and physical addresses up to `PMD` level. `alloc_pgt_page` is a callback function that is called to allocate space for a page table entry. The `context` field is an instance of the `alloc_pgt_data` structure. We use it to track allocated page tables. The `page_flag` and `kernpg_flag` fields are page flags. The first represents flags for `PMD` or `PUD` entries. The `kernpg_flag` field represents overridable flags for kernel pages. The `direct_gbpages` field is used to check if huge pages are supported and the last field, `offset`, represents the offset between the kernel's virtual addresses and its physical addresses up to the `PMD` level.
The `alloc_pgt_page` callback just validates that there is space for a new page, allocates new page: The `alloc_pgt_page` callback just checks that there is space for a new page, allocates it in the `pgt_buf` field of the `alloc_pgt_data` structure and returns the address of the new page:
```C ```C
entry = pages->pgt_buf + pages->pgt_buf_offset; entry = pages->pgt_buf + pages->pgt_buf_offset;
pages->pgt_buf_offset += PAGE_SIZE; pages->pgt_buf_offset += PAGE_SIZE;
``` ```
in the buffer from the: Here's what the `alloc_pgt_data` structure looks like:
```C ```C
struct alloc_pgt_data { struct alloc_pgt_data {
@ -189,36 +189,36 @@ struct alloc_pgt_data {
}; };
``` ```
structure and returns address of a new page. The last goal of the `initialize_identity_maps` function is to initialize `pgdt_buf_size` and `pgt_buf_offset`. As we are only in initialization phase, the `initialze_identity_maps` function sets `pgt_buf_offset` to zero: The last goal of the `initialize_identity_maps` function is to initialize `pgdt_buf_size` and `pgt_buf_offset`. As we are only in the initialization phase, the `initialze_identity_maps` function sets `pgt_buf_offset` to zero:
```C ```C
pgt_data.pgt_buf_offset = 0; pgt_data.pgt_buf_offset = 0;
``` ```
and the `pgt_data.pgt_buf_size` will be set to `77824` or `69632` depends on which boot protocol will be used by bootloader (64-bit or 32-bit). The same is for `pgt_data.pgt_buf`. If a bootloader loaded the kernel at `startup_32`, the `pgdt_data.pgdt_buf` will point to the end of the page table which already was initialzed in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S): `pgt_data.pgt_buf_size` will be set to `77824` or `69632` depending on which boot protocol was used by the bootloader (64-bit or 32-bit). The same is done for `pgt_data.pgt_buf`. If a bootloader loaded the kernel at `startup_32`, `pgdt_data.pgdt_buf` will point to the end of the already initialzed page table in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/head_64.S) source code file:
```C ```C
pgt_data.pgt_buf = _pgtable + BOOT_INIT_PGT_SIZE; pgt_data.pgt_buf = _pgtable + BOOT_INIT_PGT_SIZE;
``` ```
where `_pgtable` points to the beginning of this page table [_pgtable](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S). In other way, if a bootloader have used 64-bit boot protocol and loaded the kernel at `startup_64`, early page tables should be built by bootloader itself and `_pgtable` will be just overwrote: Here, `_pgtable` points to the beginning of [_pgtable](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/vmlinux.lds.S). On the other hand, if the bootloader used the 64-bit boot protocol and loaded the kernel at `startup_64`, the early page tables should already be built by the bootloader itself and `_pgtable` will just point to those instead:
```C ```C
pgt_data.pgt_buf = _pgtable pgt_data.pgt_buf = _pgtable
``` ```
As the buffer for new page tables is initialized, we may return back to the `choose_random_location` function. As the buffer for new page tables is initialized, we may return to the `choose_random_location` function.
Avoid reserved memory ranges Avoiding Reserved Memory Ranges
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
After the stuff related to identity page tables is initilized, we may start to choose random location where to put decompressed kernel image. But as you may guess, we can't choose any address. There are some reseved addresses in memory ranges. Such addresses occupied by important things, like [initrd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_ramdisk), kernel command line and etc. The After the stuff related to identity page tables is initilized, we can choose a random memory location to extract the kernel image to. But as you may have guessed, we can't just choose any address. There are certain reseved memory regions which are occupied by important things like the [initrd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_ramdisk) and the kernel command line which must be avoided. The `mem_avoid_init` function will help us do this:
```C ```C
mem_avoid_init(input, input_size, *output); mem_avoid_init(input, input_size, *output);
``` ```
function will help us to do this. All non-safe memory regions will be collected in the: All unsafe memory regions will be collected in an array called `mem_avoid`:
```C ```C
struct mem_vector { struct mem_vector {
@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ struct mem_vector {
static struct mem_vector mem_avoid[MEM_AVOID_MAX]; static struct mem_vector mem_avoid[MEM_AVOID_MAX];
``` ```
array. Where `MEM_AVOID_MAX` is from `mem_avoid_index` [enum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerated_type#C) which represents different types of reserved memory regions: Here, `MEM_AVOID_MAX` is from the `mem_avoid_index` [enum](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerated_type#C) which represents different types of reserved memory regions:
```C ```C
enum mem_avoid_index { enum mem_avoid_index {
@ -245,7 +245,7 @@ enum mem_avoid_index {
Both are defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c) source code file. Both are defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c) source code file.
Let's look at the implementation of the `mem_avoid_init` function. The main goal of this function is to store information about reseved memory regions described by the `mem_avoid_index` enum in the `mem_avoid` array and create new pages for such regions in our new identity mapped buffer. Numerous parts fo the `mem_avoid_index` function are similar, but let's take a look at the one of them: Let's look at the implementation of the `mem_avoid_init` function. The main goal of this function is to store information about reseved memory regions with descriptions given by the `mem_avoid_index` enum in the `mem_avoid` array and to create new pages for such regions in our new identity mapped buffer. The `mem_avoid_index` function does the same thing for all elements in the `mem_avoid_index`enum, so let's look at a typical example of the process:
```C ```C
mem_avoid[MEM_AVOID_ZO_RANGE].start = input; mem_avoid[MEM_AVOID_ZO_RANGE].start = input;
@ -254,7 +254,7 @@ add_identity_map(mem_avoid[MEM_AVOID_ZO_RANGE].start,
mem_avoid[MEM_AVOID_ZO_RANGE].size); mem_avoid[MEM_AVOID_ZO_RANGE].size);
``` ```
At the beginning of the `mem_avoid_init` function tries to avoid memory region that is used for current kernel decompression. We fill an entry from the `mem_avoid` array with the start and size of such region and call the `add_identity_map` function which should build identity mapped pages for this region. The `add_identity_map` function is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c) source code file and looks: THe `mem_avoid_init` function first tries to avoid memory regions currently used to decompress the kernel. We fill an entry from the `mem_avoid` array with the start address and the size of the relevant region and call the `add_identity_map` function, which builds the identity mapped pages for this region. The `add_identity_map` function is defined in the [arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr_64.c) source code file and looks like this:
```C ```C
void add_identity_map(unsigned long start, unsigned long size) void add_identity_map(unsigned long start, unsigned long size)
@ -271,18 +271,18 @@ void add_identity_map(unsigned long start, unsigned long size)
} }
``` ```
As you may see it aligns memory region to 2 megabytes boundary and checks given start and end addresses. The `round_up` and `round_down` functions are used to align the start and end addresses to a 2 megabyte boundary.
In the end it just calls the `kernel_ident_mapping_init` function from the [arch/x86/mm/ident_map.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/mm/ident_map.c) source code file and pass `mapping_info` instance that was initilized above, address of the top level page table and addresses of memory region for which new identity mapping should be built. In the end this function calls the `kernel_ident_mapping_init` function from the [arch/x86/mm/ident_map.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/mm/ident_map.c) source code file and passes the previously initialized `mapping_info` instance, the address of the top level page table and the start and end addresses of the memory region for which a new identity mapping should be built.
The `kernel_ident_mapping_init` function sets default flags for new pages if they were not given: The `kernel_ident_mapping_init` function sets default flags for new pages if they were not already set:
```C ```C
if (!info->kernpg_flag) if (!info->kernpg_flag)
info->kernpg_flag = _KERNPG_TABLE; info->kernpg_flag = _KERNPG_TABLE;
``` ```
and starts to build new 2-megabytes (because of `PSE` bit in the `mapping_info.page_flag`) page entries (`PGD -> P4D -> PUD -> PMD` in a case of [five-level page tables](https://lwn.net/Articles/717293/) or `PGD -> PUD -> PMD` in a case of [four-level page tables](https://lwn.net/Articles/117749/)) related to the given addresses. It then starts to build new 2-megabyte (because of the `PSE` bit in `mapping_info.page_flag`) page entries (`PGD -> P4D -> PUD -> PMD` if we're using [five-level page tables](https://lwn.net/Articles/717293/) or `PGD -> PUD -> PMD` if [four-level page tables](https://lwn.net/Articles/117749/) are used) associated with the given addresses.
```C ```C
for (; addr < end; addr = next) { for (; addr < end; addr = next) {
@ -299,32 +299,32 @@ for (; addr < end; addr = next) {
} }
``` ```
First of all here we find next entry of the `Page Global Directory` for the given address and if it is greater than `end` of the given memory region, we set it to `end`. After this we allocate a new page with our `x86_mapping_info` callback that we already considered above and call the `ident_p4d_init` function. The `ident_p4d_init` function will do the same, but for low-level page directories (`p4d` -> `pud` -> `pmd`). The first thing this for loop does is to find the next entry of the `Page Global Directory` for the given address. If the entry's address is greater than the `end` of the given memory region, we set its size to `end`. After this, we allocate a new page with the `x86_mapping_info` callback that we looked at previously and call the `ident_p4d_init` function. The `ident_p4d_init` function will do the same thing, but for the lower level page directories (`p4d` -> `pud` -> `pmd`).
That's all. That's all.
New page entries related to reserved addresses are in our page tables. This is not the end of the `mem_avoid_init` function, but other parts are similar. It just build pages for [initrd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_ramdisk), kernel command line and etc. We now have new page entries related to reserved addresses in our page tables. We haven't reached the end of the `mem_avoid_init` function, but the rest is similar. It builds pages for the [initrd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_ramdisk) and the kernel command line, among other things.
Now we may return back to `choose_random_location` function. Now we may return to the `choose_random_location` function.
Physical address randomization Physical address randomization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
After the reserved memory regions were stored in the `mem_avoid` array and identity mapping pages were built for them, we select minimal available address to choose random memory region to decompress the kernel: After the reserved memory regions have been stored in the `mem_avoid` array and identity mapped pages are built for them, we select the region with the lowest available address to decompress the kernel to:
```C ```C
min_addr = min(*output, 512UL << 20); min_addr = min(*output, 512UL << 20);
``` ```
As you may see it should be smaller than `512` megabytes. This `512` megabytes value was selected just to avoid unknown things in lower memory. You will notice that the address should be within the first `512` megabytes. A limit of `512` megabytes was selected to avoid unknown things in lower memory.
The next step is to select random physical and virtual addresses to load kernel. The first is physical addresses: The next step is to select random physical and virtual addresses to load the kernel to. The first is the physical addresses:
```C ```C
random_addr = find_random_phys_addr(min_addr, output_size); random_addr = find_random_phys_addr(min_addr, output_size);
``` ```
The `find_random_phys_addr` function is defined in the [same](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c) source code file: The `find_random_phys_addr` function is defined in the [same](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/boot/compressed/kaslr.c) source code file as `choose_random_location`:
``` ```
static unsigned long find_random_phys_addr(unsigned long minimum, static unsigned long find_random_phys_addr(unsigned long minimum,
@ -340,7 +340,7 @@ static unsigned long find_random_phys_addr(unsigned long minimum,
} }
``` ```
The main goal of `process_efi_entries` function is to find all suitable memory ranges in full accessible memory to load kernel. If the kernel compiled and runned on the system without [EFI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Extensible_Firmware_Interface) support, we continue to search such memory regions in the [e820](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E820) regions. All founded memory regions will be stored in the The main goal of the `process_efi_entries` function is to find all suitable memory ranges in fully accessible memory to load kernel. If the kernel is compiled and run on a system without [EFI](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Extensible_Firmware_Interface) support, we continue to search for such memory regions in the [e820](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E820) region. All memory regions found will be stored in the `slot_areas` array:
```C ```C
struct slot_area { struct slot_area {
@ -353,20 +353,20 @@ struct slot_area {
static struct slot_area slot_areas[MAX_SLOT_AREA]; static struct slot_area slot_areas[MAX_SLOT_AREA];
``` ```
array. The kernel will select a random index of this array for kernel to be decompressed. This selection will be executed by the `slots_fetch_random` function. The main goal of the `slots_fetch_random` function is to select random memory range from the `slot_areas` array via `kaslr_get_random_long` function: The kernel will select a random index from this array to decompress the kernel to. The selection process is conducted by the `slots_fetch_random` function. The main goal of the `slots_fetch_random` function is to select a random memory range from the `slot_areas` array via the `kaslr_get_random_long` function:
```C ```C
slot = kaslr_get_random_long("Physical") % slot_max; slot = kaslr_get_random_long("Physical") % slot_max;
``` ```
The `kaslr_get_random_long` function is defined in the [arch/x86/lib/kaslr.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/lib/kaslr.c) source code file and it just returns random number. Note that the random number will be get via different ways depends on kernel configuration and system opportunities (select random number base on [time stamp counter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Stamp_Counter), [rdrand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RdRand) and so on). The `kaslr_get_random_long` function is defined in the [arch/x86/lib/kaslr.c](https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/v4.16/arch/x86/lib/kaslr.c) source code file and as its name suggests, returns a random number. Note that the random number can be generated in a number of ways depending on kernel configuration and features present in the system (For example, using the [time stamp counter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Stamp_Counter), or [rdrand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RdRand) or some other method).
That's all from this point random memory range will be selected. We now have a random physical address to decompress the kernel to.
Virtual address randomization Virtual address randomization
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
After random memory region was selected by the kernel decompressor, new identity mapped pages will be built for this region by demand: After selecting a random physical address for the decompressed kernel, we generate identity mapped pages for the region:
```C ```C
random_addr = find_random_phys_addr(min_addr, output_size); random_addr = find_random_phys_addr(min_addr, output_size);
@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ if (*output != random_addr) {
} }
``` ```
From this time `output` will store the base address of a memory region where kernel will be decompressed. But for this moment, as you may remember we randomized only physical address. Virtual address should be randomized too in a case of [x86_64](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64) architecture: From now on, `output` will store the base address of the memory region where kernel will be decompressed. Currrently, we have only randomized the physical address. We can randomize the virtual address as well on the [x86_64](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64) architecture:
```C ```C
if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_X86_64)) if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_X86_64))
@ -386,18 +386,18 @@ if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_X86_64))
*virt_addr = random_addr; *virt_addr = random_addr;
``` ```
As you may see in a case of non `x86_64` architecture, randomzed virtual address will coincide with randomized physical address. The `find_random_virt_addr` function calculates amount of virtual memory ranges that may hold kernel image and calls the `kaslr_get_random_long` that we already saw in a previous case when we tried to find random `physical` address. In architectures other than `x86_64`, the randomized physical and virtual addresses are the same. The `find_random_virt_addr` function calculates the number of virtual memory ranges needed to hold the kernel image. It calls the `kaslr_get_random_long` function, which we have already seen being used to generate a random `physical` address.
From this moment we have both randomized base physical (`*output`) and virtual (`*virt_addr`) addresses for decompressed kernel. At this point we have randomized both the base physical (`*output`) and virtual (`*virt_addr`) addresses for the decompressed kernel.
That's all. That's all.
Conclusion Conclusion
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This is the end of the sixth and the last part about linux kernel booting process. We will not see posts about kernel booting anymore (maybe updates to this and previous posts), but there will be many posts about other kernel internals. This is the end of the sixth and last part concerning the linux kernel's booting process. We will not see any more posts about kernel booting (though there may be updates to this and previous posts). We will now turn to other parts of the linux kernel instead.
Next chapter will be about kernel initialization and we will see the first steps in the Linux kernel initialization code. The next chapter will be about kernel initialization and we will study the first steps take in the Linux kernel initialization code.
If you have any questions or suggestions write me a comment or ping me in [twitter](https://twitter.com/0xAX). If you have any questions or suggestions write me a comment or ping me in [twitter](https://twitter.com/0xAX).