chapter sections and headings re-organization

ch04.asciidoc

@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ In bitcoin, we use public key cryptography to create a key pair that controls ac
 In most implementations, the private and public keys are stored together as a _key pair_ for convenience. However, it is trivial to reproduce the public key if one has the private key, so storing only the private key is also possible. 
 ====
 
-=== Keys
+==== Private and Public Keys
 
 A bitcoin wallet contains a collection of key pairs, each consisting of a private key and a public key. The private key (k) is a number, usually picked at random. From the private key, we use elliptic curve multiplication, a one-way cryptographic function, to generate a public key (K). From the public key (K), we use a one-way cryptographic hash function to generate a bitcoin address (A). In this section we will start with generating the private key, look at the elliptic curve math that is used to turn that into a public key and finally, generate a bitcoin address from the public key. The relationship between private key, public key and bitcoin address is shown below:
 
@@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ image::images/ecc_illustrated.png["ecc_illustrated"]
 A private key can be converted into a public key, but a public key cannot be converted back into a private key because the math only works one way. 
 ====
 
-==== Addresses
+=== Bitcoin Addresses
 
 An address is a string of digits and characters that can be shared with anyone who wants to send you money. In bitcoin, addresses produced from public keys begin with the digit "1". The bitcoin address is what appears most commonly in a transaction as the "recipient" of the funds. If we were to compare a bitcoin transaction to a paper cheque, the bitcoin address is the beneficiary, which is what we write on the line after "Pay to the order of". On a paper cheque, that beneficiary can sometimes be the name of a bank account holder, but can also include corporations, institutions or even cash. Because paper cheques do not need to specify an account, but rather use an abstract name as the recipient of funds, that makes paper cheques very flexible as payment instruments. Bitcoin transactions use a similar abstraction, the bitcoin address, to make them very flexible. A bitcoin address can represent the owner of a private/public key pair, or it can represent something else, such as a payment script, as we will see in <<p2sh>>. For now, let's examine the simple case, a bitcoin address that represents, and is derived from, a public key.
     
@@ -199,10 +199,10 @@ Bitcoin addresses are almost always presented to users in an encoding called "Ba
 .Public Key to Bitcoin Address: Conversion of a public key into a bitcoin address 
 image::images/PubKey_to_Bitcoin_Address.png["pubkey_to_address"]
 
-===== Base58 and Base58Check Encoding
+==== Base58 and Base58Check Encoding
 
 [[base58]]
-====== Base-58 Encoding
+===== Base-58 Encoding
 
 In order to represent long numbers in a compact way, using fewer symbols, many computer systems use mixed-alphanumeric representations with a base (or radix) higher than 10. For example, whereas the traditional decimal system uses the ten numerals 0 through 9, the hexadecimal system uses sixteen, with the letters A through F as the six additional symbols. A number represented in hexadecimal format is shorter than the equivalent decimal representation. Even more compact, Base-64 representation uses 26 lower case letters, 26 capital letters, 10 numerals and two more characters such as "\+" and "/" to transmit binary data over text-based media such as email. Base-64 is most commonly used to add binary attachments to email. Base-58 is a text-based binary-encoding format developed for use in bitcoin and used in many other crypto-currencies. It offers a balance between compact representation, readability and error detection and prevention. Base-58 is a subset of Base-64, using the upper and lower case letters and numbers but omitting some characters that are frequently mistaken for one another and can appear identical when displayed in certain fonts. Specifically, Base-58 is Base-64 without the 0 (number zero), O (capital o), l (lower L), I (capital i) and the symbols "\+" and "/". Or, more simply, it is a set of lower and capital letters and numbers without the four (0, O, l, I) mentioned above.
 
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ In order to represent long numbers in a compact way, using fewer symbols, many c
 ----
 
 [[base58check]]
-====== Base58Check Encoding
+===== Base58Check Encoding
 
 To add extra security against typos or transcription errors, Base58Check is a Base-58 encoding format, frequently used in bitcoin, which has a built-in error-checking code. The checksum is an additional four bytes added to the end of the data that is being encoded. The checksum is derived from the hash of the encoded data and can therefore be used to detect and prevent transcription and typing errors. When presented with a Base58Check code, the decoding software will calculate the checksum of the data and compare it to the checksum included in the code. If the two do not match, that indicates that an error has been introduced and the Base58Check data is invalid. For example, this prevents a mistyped bitcoin address from being accepted by the wallet software as a valid destination, an error which would otherwise result in loss of funds.
 
@@ -242,7 +242,7 @@ In bitcoin, most of the data presented to the user is Base58Check encoded to mak
 | BIP32 Extended Public Key | 0x0488B21E | xpub  
 |=======
 
-==== Key Formats and Addresses
+==== Key Formats
 
 [[priv_formats]]
 ===== Private Key Formats
@@ -272,7 +272,7 @@ The private key we generated earlier can be represented as:
 All of the above representations are different ways of showing the same number, the same private key. They look different, but any one format can easily be converted to any other format. 
 
 
-===== Decoded from Base58Check to Hex
+===== Decode from Base58Check to Hex
 
 The sx-tools package (See <<sx_tools>>) makes Base58Check format decoding easy on the command line. We use the base58check-decode command:
 ----
@@ -374,7 +374,7 @@ Here's the same key, encoded in WIF and WIF-compressed formats
 "Compressed private keys" is a misnomer! They are not compressed, rather the WIF-compressed format signifies that they should only be used to derive compressed public keys and their corresponding bitcoin addresses. Ironically, a "WIF-compressed" encoded private key is one byte longer because it has the added 01 suffix to distinguish it from an "uncompressed" one.
 ====
 
-==== Wallets
+=== Wallets
 
 Wallets are containers for private keys, usually implemented as structured files or simple databases. 
 Another method for making keys is _deterministic key generation_. Here you derive each new private key, using a one-way hash function from a previous private key, linking them in a sequence. As long as you can re-create that sequence, you only need the first key (known as a _seed_ or _master_ key) to generate them all. In this section we will examine the different methods of key generation and the wallet structures that are built around them. 
@@ -384,7 +384,7 @@ Another method for making keys is _deterministic key generation_. Here you deriv
 Wallets contain keys, not coins. The coins are stored on the blockchain in the form of transaction-outputs (often noted as vout or txout). Each user has a wallet containing keys. Wallets are really keychains containing pairs of private/public keys (See <<public key>>). Users sign transactions with the keys, thereby proving they own the transaction outputs (their coins). 
 ====
 
-===== Non-Deterministic (Random) Wallets
+==== Non-Deterministic (Random) Wallets
 
 In the first implementations of bitcoin clients, wallets were simply collections of randomly generated private keys. For example, the Bitcoin Core Client pre-generates 100 random private keys when first started and generates more keys as needed, trying to use each key only once. This type of wallet is nicknamed "Just a Bunch Of Keys" or JBOK and such wallets are being replaced with deterministic wallets because they are cumbersome to manage, backup and import. The disadvantage of random keys is that if you generate many of them you must keep copies of all of them, meaning that the wallet must be backed-up frequently. Each key must be backed-up, or the funds it controls are irrevocably lost. This conflicts directly with the principle of avoiding address re-use, by using each bitcoin address for only one transaction. Address re-use reduces privacy by associating multiple transactions and addresses with each other. A Type-0 wallet is a poor choice of wallet, especially if you want to avoid address re-use as that means managing many keys, which creates the need for very frequent backups. The Bitcoin Core Client includes a wallet that is implemented as a Type-0 wallet, but the use of this wallet is actively discouraged by the Bitcoin Core developers.
 
@@ -392,11 +392,11 @@ In the first implementations of bitcoin clients, wallets were simply collections
 .Type-0 Non-Deterministic (Random) Wallet: A Collection of Randomly Generated Keys
 image::images/non-deterministic_wallet.png["non-deterministic wallet"]
 
-===== Deterministic (Seeded)
+==== Deterministic (Seeded)
 
 Deterministic, or "seeded" wallets are wallets that contain private keys which are all derived from a common seed, through the use of a one-way hash function. The seed is a randomly generated number which is combined with other data, such as an index number or "chain code" (see <<hd_wallets>>) to derive the private keys. In a deterministic wallet, the seed is sufficient to recover all the derived keys and therefore a single backup at creation time is sufficient. The seed is also sufficient for a wallet export or import, allowing for easy migration of all the user's keys between different wallet implementations.
 
-===== Mnemonic Code Words (BIP0039)
+==== Mnemonic Code Words (BIP0039)
 
 Mnemonic codes are English word sequences that are generated from a random sequence and used to produce a seed for use in deterministic wallets. The sequence of words is sufficient to re-create the seed and from there re-create the wallet and all the derived keys. A wallet application that implements deterministic wallets with mnemonic code, will show the user a sequence of 12-24 words when first creating a wallet. That sequence of words is the wallet backup and can be used to recover and re-create all the keys, in the same or any compatible wallet application. 
 
@@ -442,22 +442,22 @@ luggage oxygen faint major edit measure invite love trap field dilemma oblige
 fcf473bee22fce540af281bf7cdeade0dd2c1c795bd02f1e4049e205a0158906c343 
 |=======
 
-===== Deterministic Chains (Electrum Key Chains)
+==== Deterministic Chains (Electrum Key Chains)
 
 [[Type1_wallet]]
 .Type-1 Deterministic Wallet: A Chain of Keys Generated from a Seed
 image::images/chained_wallet.png["chained wallet"]
 
 [[hd_wallets]]
-===== Deterministic Trees (BIP0032)
+==== Deterministic Trees (BIP0032)
 
 [[Type2_wallet]]
 .Type-2 Hierarchical Deterministic Wallet: A Tree of Keys Generated from a Seed
 image::images/HD_wallet.png["HD wallet"]
 
-==== Advanced Keys and Addresses
+=== Advanced Keys and Addresses
 
-===== Encrypted Private Keys (BIP0038)
+==== Encrypted Private Keys (BIP0038)
 
 Private keys must remain secret. The need for _confidentiality_ of the private keys is a truism which is quite difficult to achieve in practice, as it conflicts with the equally important security objective of _availability_. Keeping the private key private is much harder when you need to store backups of the private key to avoid losing it. A private key stored in a wallet that is encrypted by a password may be secure, but that wallet needs to be backed up. At times, users need to move keys from one wallet to another, to upgrade or replace the wallet software, for example. Private key backups might also be stored on paper (see <<paper_wallets>>) or on external storage media, such as a USB flash drive. But what if the backup itself is stolen or lost? These conflicting security goals led to the introduction of a portable and convenient standard for encrypting private keys in a way that can be understood by many different wallets and bitcoin clients, standardized by Bitcoin Improvement Proposal 38  or BIP0038 (see <<bip0038>>). 
     
@@ -479,7 +479,7 @@ Test the following encrypted keys using bitaddress.org to see how you can get th
 
 
 [[p2sh]]
-===== Pay To Script Hash (P2SH) and Multi-Sig Addresses 
+==== Pay To Script Hash (P2SH) and Multi-Sig Addresses 
 
 As we know, traditional bitcoin addresses begin with the number “1” and are derived from the public key, which is derived from the private key.  While anyone can send bitcoin to a “1” address, that bitcoin can only be spent by presenting the corresponding private key signature and public key hash. 
 
@@ -499,13 +499,13 @@ The resulting "script hash" is encoded with Base58Check with a version prefix of
 P2SH is not necessarily the same as a multi-signature standard transaction. A P2SH address _most often_ represents a multi-signature script, but it might also represent a script encoding other types of transactions. 
 ====
 
-====== Multi-signature addresses and P2SH
+===== Multi-signature addresses and P2SH
 
 Currently, the most common implementation of the P2SH function is the multi-signature address script. As the name implies, the underlying script requires more than one signature to prove ownership and therefore spend funds. The bitcoin multi-signature feature is designed to require M signatures (also known as the “threshold”) from a total of N keys, known as an M-of-N multi-sig, where M is equal to or less than N. For example, Bob the coffee shop owner from chapter 1 could use a multi-signature address requiring 1-of-2 signatures from a key belonging to him and a key belonging to his spouse, ensuring either of them could sign to spend a transaction output locked to this address. This would be similar to a “joint account” as implemented in traditional banking where either spouse can spend with a single signature. Or Gopesh, the web designer paid by Bob to create a website might have a 2-of-3 multi-signature address for his business that ensures that no funds can be spent unless at least two of the business partners sign a transaction. 
 
 We will explore how to create transactions that spend funds from P2SH (and multi-signature) addresses in <<transactions>>
 
-===== Vanity Addresses
+==== Vanity Addresses
 
 Vanity addresses are valid bitcoin addresses that contain human-readable messages, for example 1LoveBPzzD72PUXLzCkYAtGFYmK5vYNR33 is a valid address that contains the letters forming the word "Love" as the first four Base-58 letters. Vanity addresses require generating and testing billions of candidate private keys, until one derives a bitcoin address with the desired pattern. While there are some optimizations in the vanity generation algorithm, the process essentially involves picking a private key at random, deriving the public key, deriving the bitcoin address and checking to see if it matches the desired vanity pattern, repeating billions of times until a match is found. 
 
@@ -513,7 +513,7 @@ Once a vanity address matching the desired pattern is found, the private key fro
 
 In our first chapter, we introduced Eugenio, a children's charity director operating in the Philippines. Let's say that Eugenio is organizing a bitcoin fundraising drive and wants to use a vanity bitcoin address to publicize the fundraising. Eugenio will create a vanity address that starts with "1Kids", to promote the children's charity fundraiser. Let's see how this vanity address will be created and what it means for the security of Eugenio's charity. 
 
-====== Generating Vanity Addresses
+===== Generating Vanity Addresses
 
 It's important to realize that a bitcoin address is simply a number represented by symbols in the Base-58 alphabet. The search for a pattern like "1Kids" can be seen as searching for an address in the range from "1Kids11111111111111111111111111111" to "1Kidszzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz". There are approximately 58^31^ (approximately 4.6 * 10^54^) addresses in that range, all starting with "1Kids". 
 
@@ -547,7 +547,7 @@ As you can see, Eugenio won't be creating the vanity address "1KidsCharity" any
 
 Another way to find a vanity address is to outsource the work to a pool of vanity-miners, such as the pool at vanitypool.appspot.com. A pool is a service that allows those with GPU hardware to earn bitcoin searching for vanity addresses for others. For a small payment (0.01 bitcoin or approximately $5 when this was written), Eugenio can outsource the search for a 7-character pattern vanity address and get results in a few hours instead of having to run a CPU search for months. 
 
-====== Vanity Address Security
+===== Vanity Address Security
 
 Vanity addresses can be used to enhance _and_ to defeat security measures, they are truly a double-edged sword. Used to improve security, a distinctive address makes it harder for adversaries to substitute their own address and fool your customers into paying them instead of you. Unfortunately, vanity addresses also make it possible for anyone to create an address that _resembles_ any random address, or even another vanity address, thereby fooling your customers. 
 
@@ -566,7 +566,7 @@ In both cases, one of the risks of using a single fixed address (rather than a s
 So does a vanity address increase security? If Eugenio generates the vanity address "1Kids33q44erFfpeXrmDSz7zEqG2FesZEN", 
 users are likely to look at the vanity pattern word _and a few characters beyond_, for example noticing the "1Kids33" part of the address. That would force an attacker to generate a vanity address matching at least 6 characters (2 more), expending an effort that is 3,364 times (58 x 58) higher than the effort Eugenio expended for a 4 character vanity. Essentially, the effort Eugenio expends (or pays a vanity pool for) "pushes" the attacker into having to produce a longer pattern vanity. If Eugenio pays a pool to generate an 8 character vanity address, the attacker would be pushed into the realm of 10 characters which is infeasible on a personal computer and expensive even with a custom vanity-mining rig or vanity pool. What is affordable for Eugenio becomes unaffordable for the attacker, especially if the potential reward of fraud is not high enough to cover the cost of the vanity address generation. 
 
-===== Paper Wallets
+==== Paper Wallets
 
 Paper wallets are bitcoin private keys printed on paper. Often the paper wallet also includes the corresponding bitcoin address, for convenience, but this is not necessary since it can be derived from the private key. Paper wallets are a very effective way to create backups or offline bitcoin storage, also known as "cold storage". As a backup mechanism, a paper wallet can provide security against the loss of key due to a computer mishap such as a hard drive failure, theft or accidental deletion. As a "cold storage" mechanism, if the paper wallet keys are generated offline and never stored on a computer system, they are much more secure against hackers, key-loggers and other online computer threats.