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ch09.asciidoc
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=== Introduction
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((("blockchain (the)", "overview of")))The blockchain data structure is an ordered, back-linked list of blocks of transactions. The blockchain can be stored as a flat file, or in a simple database. The Bitcoin Core client stores the blockchain metadata using Google's LevelDB database. Blocks are linked "back," each referring to the previous block in the chain. ((("blocks", "block height")))The blockchain is often visualized as a vertical stack, with blocks layered on top of each other and the first block serving as the foundation of the stack. The visualization of blocks stacked on top of each other results in the use of terms such as "height" to refer to the distance from the first block, and "top" or "tip" to refer to the most recently added block.
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((("blockchain (the)", "overview of")))The blockchain data structure is
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an ordered, back-linked list of blocks of transactions. The blockchain
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can be stored as a flat file, or in a simple database. The Bitcoin Core
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client stores the blockchain metadata using Google's LevelDB database.
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Blocks are linked "back," each referring to the previous block in the
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chain. ((("blocks", "block height")))The blockchain is often visualized
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as a vertical stack, with blocks layered on top of each other and the
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first block serving as the foundation of the stack. The visualization of
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blocks stacked on top of each other results in the use of terms such as
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"height" to refer to the distance from the first block, and "top" or
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"tip" to refer to the most recently added block.
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((("blocks", "block hash")))((("blocks", "genesis block")))((("blocks", "parent blocks")))((("genesis block")))((("parent blocks")))Each block within the blockchain is identified by a hash, generated using the SHA256 cryptographic hash algorithm on the header of the block. Each block also references a previous block, known as the _parent_ block, through the "previous block hash" field in the block header. In other words, each block contains the hash of its parent inside its own header. The sequence of hashes linking each block to its parent creates a chain going back all the way to the first block ever created, known as the _genesis block_.
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((("blocks", "block hash")))((("blocks", "genesis block")))((("blocks",
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"parent blocks")))((("genesis block")))((("parent blocks")))Each block
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within the blockchain is identified by a hash, generated using the
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SHA256 cryptographic hash algorithm on the header of the block. Each
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block also references a previous block, known as the _parent_ block,
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through the "previous block hash" field in the block header. In other
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words, each block contains the hash of its parent inside its own header.
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The sequence of hashes linking each block to its parent creates a chain
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going back all the way to the first block ever created, known as the
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_genesis block_.
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Although a block has just one parent, it can temporarily have multiple children. Each of the children refers to the same block as its parent and contains the same (parent) hash in the "previous block hash" field. Multiple children arise during a blockchain "fork," a temporary situation that occurs when different blocks are discovered almost simultaneously by different miners (see <<forks>>). Eventually, only one child block becomes part of the blockchain and the "fork" is resolved. Even though a block may have more than one child, each block can have only one parent. This is because a block has one single "previous block hash" field referencing its single parent.
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Although a block has just one parent, it can temporarily have multiple
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children. Each of the children refers to the same block as its parent
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and contains the same (parent) hash in the "previous block hash" field.
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Multiple children arise during a blockchain "fork," a temporary
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situation that occurs when different blocks are discovered almost
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simultaneously by different miners (see <<forks>>). Eventually, only one
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child block becomes part of the blockchain and the "fork" is resolved.
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Even though a block may have more than one child, each block can have
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only one parent. This is because a block has one single "previous block
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hash" field referencing its single parent.
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The "previous block hash" field is inside the block header and thereby affects the _current_ block's hash. The child's own identity changes if the parent's identity changes. When the parent is modified in any way, the parent's hash changes. The parent's changed hash necessitates a change in the "previous block hash" pointer of the child. This in turn causes the child's hash to change, which requires a change in the pointer of the grandchild, which in turn changes the grandchild, and so on. This cascade effect ensures that once a block has many generations following it, it cannot be changed without forcing a recalculation of all subsequent blocks. Because such a recalculation would require enormous computation (and therefore energy consumption), the existence of a long chain of blocks makes the blockchain's deep history immutable, which is a key feature of bitcoin's security.
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The "previous block hash" field is inside the block header and thereby
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affects the _current_ block's hash. The child's own identity changes if
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the parent's identity changes. When the parent is modified in any way,
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the parent's hash changes. The parent's changed hash necessitates a
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change in the "previous block hash" pointer of the child. This in turn
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causes the child's hash to change, which requires a change in the
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pointer of the grandchild, which in turn changes the grandchild, and so
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on. This cascade effect ensures that once a block has many generations
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following it, it cannot be changed without forcing a recalculation of
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all subsequent blocks. Because such a recalculation would require
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enormous computation (and therefore energy consumption), the existence
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of a long chain of blocks makes the blockchain's deep history immutable,
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which is a key feature of bitcoin's security.
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One way to think about the blockchain is like layers in a geological formation, or glacier core sample. The surface layers might change with the seasons, or even be blown away before they have time to settle. But once you go a few inches deep, geological layers become more and more stable. By the time you look a few hundred feet down, you are looking at a snapshot of the past that has remained undisturbed for millions of years. In the blockchain, the most recent few blocks might be revised if there is a chain recalculation due to a fork. The top six blocks are like a few inches of topsoil. But once you go more deeply into the blockchain, beyond six blocks, blocks are less and less likely to change. ((("transactions", "coinbase transactions")))((("coinbase transactions")))After 100 blocks back there is so much stability that the coinbase transaction—the transaction containing newly mined bitcoin—can be spent. A few thousand blocks back (a month) and the blockchain is settled history, for all practical purposes. While the protocol always allows a chain to be undone by a longer chain and while the possibility of any block being reversed always exists, the probability of such an event decreases as time passes until it becomes infinitesimal.
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One way to think about the blockchain is like layers in a geological
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formation, or glacier core sample. The surface layers might change with
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the seasons, or even be blown away before they have time to settle. But
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once you go a few inches deep, geological layers become more and more
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stable. By the time you look a few hundred feet down, you are looking at
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a snapshot of the past that has remained undisturbed for millions of
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years. In the blockchain, the most recent few blocks might be revised if
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there is a chain recalculation due to a fork. The top six blocks are
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like a few inches of topsoil. But once you go more deeply into the
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blockchain, beyond six blocks, blocks are less and less likely to
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change. ((("transactions", "coinbase transactions")))((("coinbase
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transactions")))After 100 blocks back there is so much stability that
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the coinbase transaction—the transaction containing newly mined
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bitcoin—can be spent. A few thousand blocks back (a month) and the
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blockchain is settled history, for all practical purposes. While the
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protocol always allows a chain to be undone by a longer chain and while
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the possibility of any block being reversed always exists, the
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probability of such an event decreases as time passes until it becomes
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infinitesimal.
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=== Structure of a Block
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((("blocks", "structure of")))((("blockchain (the)", "block structure")))A block is a container data structure that aggregates transactions for inclusion in the public ledger, the blockchain. The block is made of a header, containing metadata, followed by a long list of transactions that make up the bulk of its size. The block header is 80 bytes, whereas the average transaction is at least 400 bytes and the average block contains more than 1900 transactions. A complete block, with all transactions, is therefore 10,000 times larger than the block header. <<block_structure1>> describes the structure of a block.
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((("blocks", "structure of")))((("blockchain (the)", "block
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structure")))A block is a container data structure that aggregates
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transactions for inclusion in the public ledger, the blockchain. The
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block is made of a header, containing metadata, followed by a long list
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of transactions that make up the bulk of its size. The block header is
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80 bytes, whereas the average transaction is at least 400 bytes and the
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average block contains more than 1900 transactions. A complete block,
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with all transactions, is therefore 10,000 times larger than the block
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header. <<block_structure1>> describes the structure of a block.
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[[block_structure1]]
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[role="pagebreak-before"]
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@ -32,7 +98,16 @@ One way to think about the blockchain is like layers in a geological formation,
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[[block_header]]
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=== Block Header
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((("blocks", "headers")))((("blockchain (the)", "block headers")))((("headers")))The block header consists of three sets of block metadata. First, there is a reference to a previous block hash, which connects this block to the previous block in the blockchain. The second set of metadata, namely the _difficulty_, _timestamp_, and _nonce_, relate to the mining competition, as detailed in <<mining>>. The third piece of metadata is the merkle tree root, a data structure used to efficiently summarize all the transactions in the block. <<block_header_structure_ch09>> describes the structure of a block header.
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((("blocks", "headers")))((("blockchain (the)", "block
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headers")))((("headers")))The block header consists of three sets of
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block metadata. First, there is a reference to a previous block hash,
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which connects this block to the previous block in the blockchain. The
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second set of metadata, namely the _difficulty_, _timestamp_, and
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_nonce_, relate to the mining competition, as detailed in <<mining>>.
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The third piece of metadata is the merkle tree root, a data structure
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used to efficiently summarize all the transactions in the block.
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<<block_header_structure_ch09>> describes the structure of a block
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header.
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[[block_header_structure_ch09]]
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@ -48,31 +123,84 @@ One way to think about the blockchain is like layers in a geological formation,
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| 4 bytes | Nonce | A counter used for the Proof-of-Work algorithm
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|=======
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The nonce, difficulty target, and timestamp are used in the mining process and will be discussed in more detail in <<mining>>.
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The nonce, difficulty target, and timestamp are used in the mining
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process and will be discussed in more detail in <<mining>>.
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[[block_hash]]
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=== Block Identifiers: Block Header Hash and Block Height
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((("blockchain (the)", "block identifiers")))((("blocks", "block height")))((("blocks", "block hash")))The primary identifier of a block is its cryptographic hash, a digital fingerprint, made by hashing the block header twice through the SHA256 algorithm. The resulting 32-byte hash is called the _block hash_ but is more accurately the _block header hash_, pass:[<span role="keep-together">because only the block header is used to compute it. For example,</span>] +000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+ is the block hash of the first bitcoin block ever created. The block hash identifies a block uniquely and unambiguously and can be independently derived by any node by simply hashing the block header.
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((("blockchain (the)", "block identifiers")))((("blocks", "block
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height")))((("blocks", "block hash")))The primary identifier of a block
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is its cryptographic hash, a digital fingerprint, made by hashing the
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block header twice through the SHA256 algorithm. The resulting 32-byte
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hash is called the _block hash_ but is more accurately the _block header
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hash_, pass:[<span role="keep-together">because only the block header is
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used to compute it. For example,</span>]
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+000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+ is
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the block hash of the first bitcoin block ever created. The block hash
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identifies a block uniquely and unambiguously and can be independently
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derived by any node by simply hashing the block header.
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Note that the block hash is not actually included inside the block's data structure, neither when the block is transmitted on the network, nor when it is stored on a node's persistence storage as part of the blockchain. Instead, the block's hash is computed by each node as the block is received from the network. The block hash might be stored in a separate database table as part of the block's metadata, to facilitate indexing and faster retrieval of blocks from disk.
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Note that the block hash is not actually included inside the block's
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data structure, neither when the block is transmitted on the network,
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nor when it is stored on a node's persistence storage as part of the
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blockchain. Instead, the block's hash is computed by each node as the
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block is received from the network. The block hash might be stored in a
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separate database table as part of the block's metadata, to facilitate
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indexing and faster retrieval of blocks from disk.
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A second way to identify a block is by its position in the blockchain, called the pass:[<span role="keep-together"><em>block height</em>. The first block ever created is at block height 0 (zero) and is the</span>] pass:[<span role="keep-together">same block that was previously referenced by the following block hash</span>] +000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+. A block can thus be identified in two ways: by referencing the block hash or by referencing the block height. Each subsequent block added "on top" of that first block is one position "higher" in the blockchain, like boxes stacked one on top of the other. The block height on January 1, 2017 was approximately 446,000, meaning there were 446,000 blocks stacked on top of the first block created in January 2009.
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A second way to identify a block is by its position in the blockchain,
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called the pass:[<span role="keep-together"><em>block height</em>. The
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first block ever created is at block height 0 (zero) and is the</span>]
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pass:[<span role="keep-together">same block that was previously
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referenced by the following block hash</span>]
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+000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+. A
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block can thus be identified in two ways: by referencing the block hash
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or by referencing the block height. Each subsequent block added "on top"
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of that first block is one position "higher" in the blockchain, like
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boxes stacked one on top of the other. The block height on January 1,
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2017 was approximately 446,000, meaning there were 446,000 blocks
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stacked on top of the first block created in January 2009.
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Unlike the block hash, the block height is not a unique identifier. Although a single block will always have a specific and invariant block height, the reverse is not true—the block height does not always identify a single block. Two or more blocks might have the same block height, competing for the same position in the blockchain. This scenario is discussed in detail in the section <<forks>>. The block height is also not a part of the block's data structure; it is not stored within the block. Each node dynamically identifies a block's position (height) in the blockchain when it is received from the Bitcoin network. The block height might also be stored as metadata in an indexed database table for faster retrieval.
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Unlike the block hash, the block height is not a unique identifier.
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Although a single block will always have a specific and invariant block
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height, the reverse is not true—the block height does not always
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identify a single block. Two or more blocks might have the same block
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height, competing for the same position in the blockchain. This scenario
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is discussed in detail in the section <<forks>>. The block height is
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also not a part of the block's data structure; it is not stored within
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the block. Each node dynamically identifies a block's position (height)
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in the blockchain when it is received from the Bitcoin network. The
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block height might also be stored as metadata in an indexed database
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table for faster retrieval.
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[TIP]
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====
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A block's _block hash_ always identifies a single block uniquely. A block also always has a specific _block height_. However, it is not always the case that a specific block height can identify a single block. Rather, two or more blocks might compete for a single position in the blockchain.
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A block's _block hash_ always identifies a single block uniquely. A
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block also always has a specific _block height_. However, it is not
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always the case that a specific block height can identify a single
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block. Rather, two or more blocks might compete for a single position in
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the blockchain.
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====
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=== The Genesis Block
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((("blocks", "genesis block")))((("blockchain (the)", "genesis block")))The first block in the blockchain is called the genesis block and was created in 2009. It is the common ancestor of all the blocks in the blockchain, meaning that if you start at any block and follow the chain backward in time, you will eventually arrive at the genesis block.
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((("blocks", "genesis block")))((("blockchain (the)", "genesis
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block")))The first block in the blockchain is called the genesis block
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and was created in 2009. It is the common ancestor of all the blocks in
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the blockchain, meaning that if you start at any block and follow the
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chain backward in time, you will eventually arrive at the genesis block.
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Every node always starts with a blockchain of at least one block because the genesis block is statically encoded within the Bitcoin client software, such that it cannot be altered. Every node always "knows" the genesis block's hash and structure, the fixed time it was created, and even the single transaction within. Thus, every node has the starting point for the blockchain, a secure "root" from which to build a trusted blockchain.
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Every node always starts with a blockchain of at least one block because
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the genesis block is statically encoded within the Bitcoin client
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software, such that it cannot be altered. Every node always "knows" the
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genesis block's hash and structure, the fixed time it was created, and
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even the single transaction within. Thus, every node has the starting
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point for the blockchain, a secure "root" from which to build a trusted
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blockchain.
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See the statically encoded genesis block inside the Bitcoin Core client, in http://bit.ly/1x6rcwP[_chainparams.cpp_].
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See the statically encoded genesis block inside the Bitcoin Core client,
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in http://bit.ly/1x6rcwP[_chainparams.cpp_].
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The following identifier hash belongs to the genesis block:
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@ -80,7 +208,9 @@ The following identifier hash belongs to the genesis block:
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000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f
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----
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You can search for that block hash in any block explorer website, such as _blockchain.info_, and you will find a page describing the contents of this block, with a URL containing that hash:
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You can search for that block hash in any block explorer website, such
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as _blockchain.info_, and you will find a page describing the contents
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of this block, with a URL containing that hash:
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https://blockchain.info/block/000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f
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@ -109,19 +239,37 @@ $ bitcoin-cli getblock 000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60
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}
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----
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The genesis block contains a hidden message within it. The coinbase transaction input contains the text "The Times 03/Jan/2009 Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks." This message was intended to offer proof of the earliest date this block was created, by referencing the headline of the British newspaper _The Times_. It also serves as a tongue-in-cheek reminder of the importance of an independent monetary system, with bitcoin's launch occurring at the same time as an unprecedented worldwide monetary crisis. The message was embedded in the first block by Satoshi Nakamoto, bitcoin's creator.
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The genesis block contains a hidden message within it. The coinbase
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transaction input contains the text "The Times 03/Jan/2009 Chancellor on
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brink of second bailout for banks." This message was intended to offer
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proof of the earliest date this block was created, by referencing the
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headline of the British newspaper _The Times_. It also serves as a
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tongue-in-cheek reminder of the importance of an independent monetary
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system, with bitcoin's launch occurring at the same time as an
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unprecedented worldwide monetary crisis. The message was embedded in the
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first block by Satoshi Nakamoto, bitcoin's creator.
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=== Linking Blocks in the Blockchain
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((("blocks", "linking blocks in the blockchain")))((("blockchain (the)", "linking blocks in the blockchain")))Bitcoin full nodes maintain a local copy of the blockchain, starting at the genesis block. The local copy of the blockchain is constantly updated as new blocks are found and used to extend the chain. As a node receives incoming blocks from the network, it will validate these blocks and then link them to the existing blockchain. To establish a link, a node will examine the incoming block header and look for the "previous block hash."
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((("blocks", "linking blocks in the blockchain")))((("blockchain (the)",
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"linking blocks in the blockchain")))Bitcoin full nodes maintain a local
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copy of the blockchain, starting at the genesis block. The local copy of
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the blockchain is constantly updated as new blocks are found and used to
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extend the chain. As a node receives incoming blocks from the network,
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it will validate these blocks and then link them to the existing
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blockchain. To establish a link, a node will examine the incoming block
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header and look for the "previous block hash."
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Let's assume, for example, that a node has 277,314 blocks in the local copy of the blockchain. The last block the node knows about is block 277,314, with a block header hash of:
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Let's assume, for example, that a node has 277,314 blocks in the local
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copy of the blockchain. The last block the node knows about is block
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277,314, with a block header hash of:
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----
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00000000000000027e7ba6fe7bad39faf3b5a83daed765f05f7d1b71a1632249
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----
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The Bitcoin node then receives a new block from the network, which it parses as follows:
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The Bitcoin node then receives a new block from the network, which it
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parses as follows:
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[source,json]
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----
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@ -145,26 +293,56 @@ The Bitcoin node then receives a new block from the network, which it parses as
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}
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----
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Looking at this new block, the node finds the +previousblockhash+ field, which contains the hash of its parent block. It is a hash known to the node, that of the last block on the chain at height 277,314. Therefore, this new block is a child of the last block on the chain and extends the existing blockchain. The node adds this new block to the end of the chain, making the blockchain longer with a new height of 277,315. <<chain_of_blocks>> shows the chain of three blocks, linked by references in the +previousblockhash+ field.
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Looking at this new block, the node finds the +previousblockhash+ field,
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which contains the hash of its parent block. It is a hash known to the
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node, that of the last block on the chain at height 277,314. Therefore,
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this new block is a child of the last block on the chain and extends the
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existing blockchain. The node adds this new block to the end of the
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chain, making the blockchain longer with a new height of 277,315.
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<<chain_of_blocks>> shows the chain of three blocks, linked by
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references in the +previousblockhash+ field.
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[[merkle_trees]]
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=== Merkle Trees
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((("merkle trees", id="merkle09")))((("blockchain (the)", "merkle trees", id="BCTmerkle09")))Each block in the Bitcoin blockchain contains a summary of all the transactions in the block using a _merkle tree_.
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((("merkle trees", id="merkle09")))((("blockchain (the)", "merkle
|
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trees", id="BCTmerkle09")))Each block in the Bitcoin blockchain contains
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a summary of all the transactions in the block using a _merkle tree_.
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|
||||
((("binary hash trees", see="merkle trees")))A _merkle tree_, also known as a _binary hash tree_, is a data structure used for efficiently summarizing and verifying the integrity of large sets of data. Merkle trees are binary trees containing cryptographic hashes. The term "tree" is used in computer science to describe a branching data structure, but these trees are usually displayed upside down with the "root" at the top and the "leaves" at the bottom of a diagram, as you will see in the examples that follow.
|
||||
((("binary hash trees", see="merkle trees")))A _merkle tree_, also known
|
||||
as a _binary hash tree_, is a data structure used for efficiently
|
||||
summarizing and verifying the integrity of large sets of data. Merkle
|
||||
trees are binary trees containing cryptographic hashes. The term "tree"
|
||||
is used in computer science to describe a branching data structure, but
|
||||
these trees are usually displayed upside down with the "root" at the top
|
||||
and the "leaves" at the bottom of a diagram, as you will see in the
|
||||
examples that follow.
|
||||
|
||||
[[chain_of_blocks]]
|
||||
[role="smallerfourtyfive"]
|
||||
.Blocks linked in a chain by reference to the previous block header hash
|
||||
image::images/mbc2_0901.png[]
|
||||
|
||||
Merkle trees are used in bitcoin to summarize all the transactions in a block, producing an overall digital fingerprint of the entire set of transactions, providing a very efficient process to verify whether a transaction is included in a block. A merkle tree is constructed by recursively hashing pairs of nodes until there is only one hash, called the _root_, or _merkle root_. The cryptographic hash algorithm used in bitcoin's merkle trees is SHA256 applied twice, also known as double-SHA256.
|
||||
Merkle trees are used in bitcoin to summarize all the transactions in a
|
||||
block, producing an overall digital fingerprint of the entire set of
|
||||
transactions, providing a very efficient process to verify whether a
|
||||
transaction is included in a block. A merkle tree is constructed by
|
||||
recursively hashing pairs of nodes until there is only one hash, called
|
||||
the _root_, or _merkle root_. The cryptographic hash algorithm used in
|
||||
bitcoin's merkle trees is SHA256 applied twice, also known as
|
||||
double-SHA256.
|
||||
|
||||
When N data elements are hashed and summarized in a merkle tree, you can check to see if any one data element is included in the tree with at most +2*log~2~(N)+ calculations, making this a very efficient data structure.
|
||||
When N data elements are hashed and summarized in a merkle tree, you can
|
||||
check to see if any one data element is included in the tree with at
|
||||
most +2*log~2~(N)+ calculations, making this a very efficient data
|
||||
structure.
|
||||
|
||||
The merkle tree is constructed bottom-up. In the following example, we start with four transactions, A, B, C, and D, which form the _leaves_ of the merkle tree, as shown in <<simple_merkle>>. The transactions are not stored in the merkle tree; rather, their data is hashed and the resulting hash is stored in each leaf node as H~A~, H~B~, H~C~, and H~D~:
|
||||
The merkle tree is constructed bottom-up. In the following example, we
|
||||
start with four transactions, A, B, C, and D, which form the _leaves_ of
|
||||
the merkle tree, as shown in <<simple_merkle>>. The transactions are not
|
||||
stored in the merkle tree; rather, their data is hashed and the
|
||||
resulting hash is stored in each leaf node as H~A~, H~B~, H~C~, and
|
||||
H~D~:
|
||||
|
||||
++++
|
||||
<pre data-type="codelisting">
|
||||
@ -172,7 +350,11 @@ H<sub>A</sub> = SHA256(SHA256(Transaction A))
|
||||
</pre>
|
||||
++++
|
||||
|
||||
Consecutive pairs of leaf nodes are then summarized in a parent node, by concatenating the two hashes and hashing them together. For example, to construct the parent node H~AB~, the two 32-byte hashes of the children are concatenated to create a 64-byte string. That string is then double-hashed to produce the parent node's hash:
|
||||
Consecutive pairs of leaf nodes are then summarized in a parent node, by
|
||||
concatenating the two hashes and hashing them together. For example, to
|
||||
construct the parent node H~AB~, the two 32-byte hashes of the children
|
||||
are concatenated to create a 64-byte string. That string is then
|
||||
double-hashed to produce the parent node's hash:
|
||||
|
||||
++++
|
||||
<pre data-type="codelisting">
|
||||
@ -180,34 +362,70 @@ H<sub>AB</sub> = SHA256(SHA256(H<sub>A</sub> + H<sub>B</sub>))
|
||||
</pre>
|
||||
++++
|
||||
|
||||
The process continues until there is only one node at the top, the node known as the merkle root. That 32-byte hash is stored in the block header and summarizes all the data in all four transactions. <<simple_merkle>> shows how the root is calculated by pair-wise hashes of the nodes.
|
||||
The process continues until there is only one node at the top, the node
|
||||
known as the merkle root. That 32-byte hash is stored in the block
|
||||
header and summarizes all the data in all four transactions.
|
||||
<<simple_merkle>> shows how the root is calculated by pair-wise hashes
|
||||
of the nodes.
|
||||
|
||||
[[simple_merkle]]
|
||||
.Calculating the nodes in a merkle tree
|
||||
image::images/mbc2_0902.png["merkle_tree"]
|
||||
|
||||
((("balanced trees")))Because the merkle tree is a binary tree, it needs an even number of leaf nodes. If there is an odd number of transactions to summarize, the last transaction hash will be duplicated to create an even number of leaf nodes, also known as a _balanced tree_. This is shown in <<merkle_tree_odd>>, where transaction C is duplicated.
|
||||
((("balanced trees")))Because the merkle tree is a binary tree, it needs
|
||||
an even number of leaf nodes. If there is an odd number of transactions
|
||||
to summarize, the last transaction hash will be duplicated to create an
|
||||
even number of leaf nodes, also known as a _balanced tree_. This is
|
||||
shown in <<merkle_tree_odd>>, where transaction C is duplicated.
|
||||
|
||||
[[merkle_tree_odd]]
|
||||
.Duplicating one data element achieves an even number of data elements
|
||||
image::images/mbc2_0903.png["merkle_tree_odd"]
|
||||
|
||||
The same method for constructing a tree from four transactions can be generalized to construct trees of any size. In bitcoin it is common to have several hundred to more than a thousand transactions in a single block, which are summarized in exactly the same way, producing just 32 bytes of data as the single merkle root. In <<merkle_tree_large>>, you will see a tree built from 16 transactions. Note that although the root looks bigger than the leaf nodes in the diagram, it is the exact same size, just 32 bytes. Whether there is one transaction or a hundred thousand transactions in the block, the merkle root always summarizes them into 32 bytes.
|
||||
The same method for constructing a tree from four transactions can be
|
||||
generalized to construct trees of any size. In bitcoin it is common to
|
||||
have several hundred to more than a thousand transactions in a single
|
||||
block, which are summarized in exactly the same way, producing just 32
|
||||
bytes of data as the single merkle root. In <<merkle_tree_large>>, you
|
||||
will see a tree built from 16 transactions. Note that although the root
|
||||
looks bigger than the leaf nodes in the diagram, it is the exact same
|
||||
size, just 32 bytes. Whether there is one transaction or a hundred
|
||||
thousand transactions in the block, the merkle root always summarizes
|
||||
them into 32 bytes.
|
||||
|
||||
((("authentication paths")))To prove that a specific transaction is included in a block, a node only needs to produce +log~2~(N)+ 32-byte hashes, constituting an _authentication path_ or _merkle path_ connecting the specific transaction to the root of the tree. This is especially important as the number of transactions increases, because the base-2 logarithm of the number of transactions increases much more slowly. This allows Bitcoin nodes to efficiently produce paths of 10 or 12 hashes (320–384 bytes), which can provide proof of a single transaction out of more than a thousand transactions in a megabyte-sized block.
|
||||
((("authentication paths")))To prove that a specific transaction is
|
||||
included in a block, a node only needs to produce +log~2~(N)+ 32-byte
|
||||
hashes, constituting an _authentication path_ or _merkle path_
|
||||
connecting the specific transaction to the root of the tree. This is
|
||||
especially important as the number of transactions increases, because
|
||||
the base-2 logarithm of the number of transactions increases much more
|
||||
slowly. This allows Bitcoin nodes to efficiently produce paths of 10 or
|
||||
12 hashes (320–384 bytes), which can provide proof of a single
|
||||
transaction out of more than a thousand transactions in a megabyte-sized
|
||||
block.
|
||||
|
||||
[[merkle_tree_large]]
|
||||
.A merkle tree summarizing many data elements
|
||||
image::images/mbc2_0904.png["merkle_tree_large"]
|
||||
|
||||
In <<merkle_tree_path>>, a node can prove that a transaction K is included in the block by producing a merkle path that is only four 32-byte hashes long (128 bytes total). The path consists of the four hashes (shown with a shaded background in <<merkle_tree_path>>) H~L~, H~IJ~, H~MNOP~, and H~ABCDEFGH~. With those four hashes provided as an authentication path, any node can prove that H~K~ (with a black background at the bottom of the diagram) is included in the merkle root by computing four additional pair-wise hashes H~KL~, H~IJKL~, H~IJKLMNOP~, and the merkle tree root (outlined in a dashed line in the diagram).
|
||||
In <<merkle_tree_path>>, a node can prove that a transaction K is
|
||||
included in the block by producing a merkle path that is only four
|
||||
32-byte hashes long (128 bytes total). The path consists of the four
|
||||
hashes (shown with a shaded background in <<merkle_tree_path>>) H~L~,
|
||||
H~IJ~, H~MNOP~, and H~ABCDEFGH~. With those four hashes provided as an
|
||||
authentication path, any node can prove that H~K~ (with a black
|
||||
background at the bottom of the diagram) is included in the merkle root
|
||||
by computing four additional pair-wise hashes H~KL~, H~IJKL~,
|
||||
H~IJKLMNOP~, and the merkle tree root (outlined in a dashed line in the
|
||||
diagram).
|
||||
|
||||
[[merkle_tree_path]]
|
||||
.A merkle path used to prove inclusion of a data element
|
||||
image::images/mbc2_0905.png["merkle_tree_path"]
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The code in <<merkle_example>> demonstrates the process of creating a merkle tree from the leaf-node hashes up to the root, using the libbitcoin library for some helper functions.
|
||||
The code in <<merkle_example>> demonstrates the process of creating a
|
||||
merkle tree from the leaf-node hashes up to the root, using the
|
||||
libbitcoin library for some helper functions.
|
||||
|
||||
[[merkle_example]]
|
||||
[role="pagebreak-before"]
|
||||
@ -219,7 +437,8 @@ include::code/merkle.cpp[]
|
||||
----
|
||||
====
|
||||
|
||||
<<merkle_example_run>> shows the result of compiling and running the merkle code.
|
||||
<<merkle_example_run>> shows the result of compiling and running the
|
||||
merkle code.
|
||||
|
||||
[[merkle_example_run]]
|
||||
.Compiling and running the merkle example code
|
||||
@ -242,7 +461,9 @@ Result: d47780c084bad3830bcdaf6eace035e4c6cbf646d103795d22104fb105014ba3
|
||||
----
|
||||
====
|
||||
|
||||
The efficiency of merkle trees becomes obvious as the scale increases. <<block_structure2>> shows the amount of data that needs to be exchanged as a merkle path to prove that a transaction is part of a block.
|
||||
The efficiency of merkle trees becomes obvious as the scale increases.
|
||||
<<block_structure2>> shows the amount of data that needs to be exchanged
|
||||
as a merkle path to prove that a transaction is part of a block.
|
||||
|
||||
[[block_structure2]]
|
||||
.Merkle tree efficiency
|
||||
@ -255,48 +476,116 @@ The efficiency of merkle trees becomes obvious as the scale increases. <<block_s
|
||||
| 65,535 transactions | 16 megabytes | 16 hashes | 512 bytes
|
||||
|=======
|
||||
|
||||
As you can see from the table, while the block size increases rapidly, from 4 KB with 16 transactions to a block size of 16 MB to fit 65,535 transactions, the merkle path required to prove the inclusion of a transaction increases much more slowly, from 128 bytes to only 512 bytes. With merkle trees, a node can download just the block headers (80 bytes per block) and still be able to identify a transaction's inclusion in a block by retrieving a small merkle path from a full node, without storing or transmitting the vast majority of the blockchain, which might be several gigabytes in size. Nodes that do not maintain a full blockchain, called simplified payment verification (SPV) nodes, use merkle paths to verify transactions without downloading full blocks.
|
||||
As you can see from the table, while the block size increases rapidly,
|
||||
from 4 KB with 16 transactions to a block size of 16 MB to fit 65,535
|
||||
transactions, the merkle path required to prove the inclusion of a
|
||||
transaction increases much more slowly, from 128 bytes to only 512
|
||||
bytes. With merkle trees, a node can download just the block headers (80
|
||||
bytes per block) and still be able to identify a transaction's inclusion
|
||||
in a block by retrieving a small merkle path from a full node, without
|
||||
storing or transmitting the vast majority of the blockchain, which might
|
||||
be several gigabytes in size. Nodes that do not maintain a full
|
||||
blockchain, called simplified payment verification (SPV) nodes, use
|
||||
merkle paths to verify transactions without downloading full blocks.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Merkle Trees and Simplified Payment Verification (SPV)
|
||||
|
||||
((("simple-payment-verification (SPV)")))((("bitcoin nodes", "SPV nodes")))Merkle trees are used extensively by SPV nodes. SPV nodes don't have all transactions and do not download full blocks, just block headers. In order to verify that a transaction is included in a block, without having to download all the transactions in the block, they use an authentication path, or merkle path.
|
||||
((("simple-payment-verification (SPV)")))((("bitcoin nodes", "SPV
|
||||
nodes")))Merkle trees are used extensively by SPV nodes. SPV nodes don't
|
||||
have all transactions and do not download full blocks, just block
|
||||
headers. In order to verify that a transaction is included in a block,
|
||||
without having to download all the transactions in the block, they use
|
||||
an authentication path, or merkle path.
|
||||
|
||||
Consider, for example, an SPV node that is interested in incoming payments to an address contained in its wallet. The SPV node will establish a bloom filter (see <<bloom_filters>>) on its connections to peers to limit the transactions received to only those containing addresses of interest. When a peer sees a transaction that matches the bloom filter, it will send that block using a +merkleblock+ message. The +merkleblock+ message contains the block header as well as a merkle path that links the transaction of interest to the merkle root in the block. The SPV node can use this merkle path to connect the transaction to the block and verify that the transaction is included in the block. The SPV node also uses the block header to link the block to the rest of the blockchain. The combination of these two links, between the transaction and block, and between the block and blockchain, proves that the transaction is recorded in the blockchain. All in all, the SPV node will have received less than a kilobyte of data for the block header and merkle path, an amount of data that is more than a thousand times less than a full block (about 1 megabyte currently).((("", startref="BCTmerkle09")))((("", startref="merkle09")))
|
||||
Consider, for example, an SPV node that is interested in incoming
|
||||
payments to an address contained in its wallet. The SPV node will
|
||||
establish a bloom filter (see <<bloom_filters>>) on its connections to
|
||||
peers to limit the transactions received to only those containing
|
||||
addresses of interest. When a peer sees a transaction that matches the
|
||||
bloom filter, it will send that block using a +merkleblock+ message. The
|
||||
+merkleblock+ message contains the block header as well as a merkle path
|
||||
that links the transaction of interest to the merkle root in the block.
|
||||
The SPV node can use this merkle path to connect the transaction to the
|
||||
block and verify that the transaction is included in the block. The SPV
|
||||
node also uses the block header to link the block to the rest of the
|
||||
blockchain. The combination of these two links, between the transaction
|
||||
and block, and between the block and blockchain, proves that the
|
||||
transaction is recorded in the blockchain. All in all, the SPV node will
|
||||
have received less than a kilobyte of data for the block header and
|
||||
merkle path, an amount of data that is more than a thousand times less
|
||||
than a full block (about 1 megabyte currently).((("",
|
||||
startref="BCTmerkle09")))((("", startref="merkle09")))
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bitcoin's Test Blockchains
|
||||
|
||||
((("blockchain (the)", "test blockchains", id="BCTtest09")))((("mainnet", seealso="blockchain (the)")))You might be surprised to learn that there is more than one Bitcoin blockchain. The "main" Bitcoin blockchain, the one created by Satoshi Nakamoto on January 3rd, 2009, the one with the genesis block we studied in this chapter, is called _mainnet_. There are other Bitcoin blockchains that are used for testing purposes: at this time _testnet_, _segnet_, and _regtest_. Let's look at each in turn.((("testnet", id="testnet09")))
|
||||
((("blockchain (the)", "test blockchains",
|
||||
id="BCTtest09")))((("mainnet", seealso="blockchain (the)")))You might be
|
||||
surprised to learn that there is more than one Bitcoin blockchain. The
|
||||
"main" Bitcoin blockchain, the one created by Satoshi Nakamoto on
|
||||
January 3rd, 2009, the one with the genesis block we studied in this
|
||||
chapter, is called _mainnet_. There are other Bitcoin blockchains that
|
||||
are used for testing purposes: at this time _testnet_, _segnet_, and
|
||||
_regtest_. Let's look at each in turn.((("testnet", id="testnet09")))
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Testnet—Bitcoin's Testing Playground
|
||||
|
||||
Testnet is the name of the test blockchain, network, and currency that is used for testing purposes. The testnet is a fully featured live P2P network, with wallets, test bitcoins (testnet coins), mining, and all the other features of mainnet. There are really only two differences: testnet coins are meant to be worthless and mining difficulty should be low enough that anyone can mine testnet coins relatively easily (keeping them worthless).
|
||||
Testnet is the name of the test blockchain, network, and currency that
|
||||
is used for testing purposes. The testnet is a fully featured live P2P
|
||||
network, with wallets, test bitcoins (testnet coins), mining, and all
|
||||
the other features of mainnet. There are really only two differences:
|
||||
testnet coins are meant to be worthless and mining difficulty should be
|
||||
low enough that anyone can mine testnet coins relatively easily (keeping
|
||||
them worthless).
|
||||
|
||||
Any software development that is intended for production use on bitcoin's mainnet should first be tested on testnet with test coins. This protects both the developers from monetary losses due to bugs and the network from unintended behavior due to bugs.
|
||||
Any software development that is intended for production use on
|
||||
bitcoin's mainnet should first be tested on testnet with test coins.
|
||||
This protects both the developers from monetary losses due to bugs and
|
||||
the network from unintended behavior due to bugs.
|
||||
|
||||
Keeping the coins worthless and the mining easy, however, is not easy. Despite pleas from developers, some people use advanced mining equipment (GPUs and ASICs) to mine on testnet. This increases the difficulty, makes it impossible to mine with a CPU, and eventually makes it difficult enough to get test coins that people start valuing them, so they're not worthless. As a result, every now and then, the testnet has to be scrapped and restarted from a new genesis block, resetting the difficulty.
|
||||
Keeping the coins worthless and the mining easy, however, is not easy.
|
||||
Despite pleas from developers, some people use advanced mining equipment
|
||||
(GPUs and ASICs) to mine on testnet. This increases the difficulty,
|
||||
makes it impossible to mine with a CPU, and eventually makes it
|
||||
difficult enough to get test coins that people start valuing them, so
|
||||
they're not worthless. As a result, every now and then, the testnet has
|
||||
to be scrapped and restarted from a new genesis block, resetting the
|
||||
difficulty.
|
||||
|
||||
The current testnet is called _testnet3_, the third iteration of testnet, restarted in February 2011 to reset the difficulty from the previous testnet.
|
||||
The current testnet is called _testnet3_, the third iteration of
|
||||
testnet, restarted in February 2011 to reset the difficulty from the
|
||||
previous testnet.
|
||||
|
||||
Keep in mind that testnet3 is a large blockchain, in excess of 20 GB in early 2017. It will take a day or so to sync fully and use up resources on your computer. Not as much as mainnet, but not exactly "lightweight" either. One good way to run a testnet node is as a virtual machine image (e.g., VirtualBox, Docker, Cloud Server, etc.) dedicated for that purpose.
|
||||
Keep in mind that testnet3 is a large blockchain, in excess of 20 GB in
|
||||
early 2017. It will take a day or so to sync fully and use up resources
|
||||
on your computer. Not as much as mainnet, but not exactly "lightweight"
|
||||
either. One good way to run a testnet node is as a virtual machine image
|
||||
(e.g., VirtualBox, Docker, Cloud Server, etc.) dedicated for that
|
||||
purpose.
|
||||
|
||||
===== Using testnet
|
||||
|
||||
Bitcoin Core, like almost all other bitcoin software, has full support for operation on testnet instead of mainnet. All of Bitcoin Core's functions work on testnet, including the wallet, mining testnet coins, and syncing a full testnet node.
|
||||
Bitcoin Core, like almost all other bitcoin software, has full support
|
||||
for operation on testnet instead of mainnet. All of Bitcoin Core's
|
||||
functions work on testnet, including the wallet, mining testnet coins,
|
||||
and syncing a full testnet node.
|
||||
|
||||
To start Bitcoin Core on testnet instead of mainnet you use the +testnet+ switch:
|
||||
To start Bitcoin Core on testnet instead of mainnet you use the
|
||||
+testnet+ switch:
|
||||
|
||||
----
|
||||
$ bitcoind -testnet
|
||||
----
|
||||
|
||||
In the logs you should see that bitcoind is building a new blockchain in the +testnet3+ subdirectory of the default bitcoind directory:
|
||||
In the logs you should see that bitcoind is building a new blockchain in
|
||||
the +testnet3+ subdirectory of the default bitcoind directory:
|
||||
|
||||
----
|
||||
bitcoind: Using data directory /home/username/.bitcoin/testnet3
|
||||
----
|
||||
|
||||
To connect to bitcoind, you use the +bitcoin-cli+ command-line tool, but you must also switch it to testnet mode:
|
||||
To connect to bitcoind, you use the +bitcoin-cli+ command-line tool, but
|
||||
you must also switch it to testnet mode:
|
||||
|
||||
----
|
||||
$ bitcoin-cli -testnet getblockchaininfo
|
||||
@ -315,22 +604,39 @@ $ bitcoin-cli -testnet getblockchaininfo
|
||||
[...]
|
||||
----
|
||||
|
||||
You can also run on testnet3 with other full-node implementations, such as +btcd+ (written in Go) and +bcoin+ (written in JavaScript), to experiment and learn in other programming languages and frameworks.
|
||||
You can also run on testnet3 with other full-node implementations, such
|
||||
as +btcd+ (written in Go) and +bcoin+ (written in JavaScript), to
|
||||
experiment and learn in other programming languages and frameworks.
|
||||
|
||||
In early 2017, testnet3 supports all the features of mainnet, including Segregated Witness (see <<segwit>>). Therefore, testnet3 can also be used to test Segregated Witness features.((("", startref="testnet09")))
|
||||
In early 2017, testnet3 supports all the features of mainnet, including
|
||||
Segregated Witness (see <<segwit>>). Therefore, testnet3 can also be
|
||||
used to test Segregated Witness features.((("", startref="testnet09")))
|
||||
|
||||
==== Segnet—The Segregated Witness Testnet
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
((("segnet")))In 2016, a special-purpose testnet was launched to aid in development and testing of Segregated Witness (aka segwit; see <<segwit>>). This test blockchain is called +segnet+ and can be joined by running a special version (branch) of Bitcoin Core.
|
||||
((("segnet")))In 2016, a special-purpose testnet was launched to aid in
|
||||
development and testing of Segregated Witness (aka segwit; see
|
||||
<<segwit>>). This test blockchain is called +segnet+ and can be joined
|
||||
by running a special version (branch) of Bitcoin Core.
|
||||
|
||||
((("segwit (Segregated Witness)")))Since segwit was added to testnet3, it is no longer necessary to use segnet for testing of segwit features.
|
||||
((("segwit (Segregated Witness)")))Since segwit was added to testnet3,
|
||||
it is no longer necessary to use segnet for testing of segwit features.
|
||||
|
||||
In the future it is likely we will see other testnet blockchains that are specifically designed to test a single feature or major architectural change, like segnet.
|
||||
In the future it is likely we will see other testnet blockchains that
|
||||
are specifically designed to test a single feature or major
|
||||
architectural change, like segnet.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Regtest—The Local Blockchain
|
||||
|
||||
((("regtest (Regression Testing)")))Regtest, which stands for "Regression Testing," is a Bitcoin Core feature that allows you to create a local blockchain for testing purposes. Unlike testnet3, which is a public and shared test blockchain, the regtest blockchains are intended to be run as closed systems for local testing. You launch a regtest blockchain from scratch, creating a local genesis block. You may add other nodes to the network, or run it with a single node only to test the Bitcoin Core software.
|
||||
((("regtest (Regression Testing)")))Regtest, which stands for
|
||||
"Regression Testing," is a Bitcoin Core feature that allows you to
|
||||
create a local blockchain for testing purposes. Unlike testnet3, which
|
||||
is a public and shared test blockchain, the regtest blockchains are
|
||||
intended to be run as closed systems for local testing. You launch a
|
||||
regtest blockchain from scratch, creating a local genesis block. You may
|
||||
add other nodes to the network, or run it with a single node only to
|
||||
test the Bitcoin Core software.
|
||||
|
||||
To start Bitcoin Core in regtest mode, you use the +regtest+ flag:
|
||||
|
||||
@ -338,13 +644,16 @@ To start Bitcoin Core in regtest mode, you use the +regtest+ flag:
|
||||
$ bitcoind -regtest
|
||||
----
|
||||
|
||||
Just like with testnet, Bitcoin Core will initialize a new blockchain under the _regtest_ subdirectory of your bitcoind default directory:
|
||||
Just like with testnet, Bitcoin Core will initialize a new blockchain
|
||||
under the _regtest_ subdirectory of your bitcoind default directory:
|
||||
|
||||
----
|
||||
bitcoind: Using data directory /home/username/.bitcoin/regtest
|
||||
----
|
||||
|
||||
To use the command-line tool, you need to specify the +regtest+ flag too. Let's try the +getblockchaininfo+ command to inspect the regtest blockchain:
|
||||
To use the command-line tool, you need to specify the +regtest+ flag
|
||||
too. Let's try the +getblockchaininfo+ command to inspect the regtest
|
||||
blockchain:
|
||||
|
||||
----
|
||||
$ bitcoin-cli -regtest getblockchaininfo
|
||||
@ -361,7 +670,8 @@ $ bitcoin-cli -regtest getblockchaininfo
|
||||
[...]
|
||||
----
|
||||
|
||||
As you can see, there are no blocks yet. Let's mine some (500 blocks) and earn the reward:
|
||||
As you can see, there are no blocks yet. Let's mine some (500 blocks)
|
||||
and earn the reward:
|
||||
|
||||
----
|
||||
$ bitcoin-cli -regtest generate 500
|
||||
@ -376,7 +686,10 @@ $ bitcoin-cli -regtest generate 500
|
||||
]
|
||||
----
|
||||
|
||||
It will only take a few seconds to mine all these blocks, which certainly makes it easy for testing. If you check your wallet balance, you will see that you earned reward for the first 400 blocks (coinbase rewards must be 100 blocks deep before you can spend them):
|
||||
It will only take a few seconds to mine all these blocks, which
|
||||
certainly makes it easy for testing. If you check your wallet balance,
|
||||
you will see that you earned reward for the first 400 blocks (coinbase
|
||||
rewards must be 100 blocks deep before you can spend them):
|
||||
|
||||
----
|
||||
$ bitcoin-cli -regtest getbalance
|
||||
@ -385,6 +698,20 @@ $ bitcoin-cli -regtest getbalance
|
||||
|
||||
=== Using Test Blockchains for Development
|
||||
|
||||
((("development environment", "test blockchains and")))Bitcoin's various blockchains (+regtest+, +segnet+, +testnet3+, +mainnet+) offer a range of testing environments for bitcoin development. Use the test blockchains whether you are developing for Bitcoin Core, or another full-node consensus client; an application such as a wallet, exchange, ecommerce site; or even developing novel smart contracts and complex scripts.
|
||||
((("development environment", "test blockchains and")))Bitcoin's various
|
||||
blockchains (+regtest+, +segnet+, +testnet3+, +mainnet+) offer a range
|
||||
of testing environments for bitcoin development. Use the test
|
||||
blockchains whether you are developing for Bitcoin Core, or another
|
||||
full-node consensus client; an application such as a wallet, exchange,
|
||||
ecommerce site; or even developing novel smart contracts and complex
|
||||
scripts.
|
||||
|
||||
You can use the test blockchains to establish a development pipeline. Test your code locally on a +regtest+ as you develop it. Once you are ready to try it on a public network, switch to +testnet+ to expose your code to a more dynamic environment with more diversity of code and applications. Finally, once you are confident your code works as expected, switch to +mainnet+ to deploy it in production. As you make changes, improvements, bug fixes, etc., start the pipeline again, deploying each change first on +regtest+, then on +testnet+, and finally into production.((("", startref="BCTtest09")))
|
||||
You can use the test blockchains to establish a development pipeline.
|
||||
Test your code locally on a +regtest+ as you develop it. Once you are
|
||||
ready to try it on a public network, switch to +testnet+ to expose your
|
||||
code to a more dynamic environment with more diversity of code and
|
||||
applications. Finally, once you are confident your code works as
|
||||
expected, switch to +mainnet+ to deploy it in production. As you make
|
||||
changes, improvements, bug fixes, etc., start the pipeline again,
|
||||
deploying each change first on +regtest+, then on +testnet+, and finally
|
||||
into production.((("", startref="BCTtest09")))
|
||||
|
||||
Loading…
Reference in New Issue
Block a user