Merge branch 'EdLeafe-ch05' into develop

ch05.asciidoc

@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ In this chapter we will examine all the various forms of transactions, what do t
 [[tx_lifecycle]]
 === Transaction Lifecycle
 
-A transaction's lifecycle starts with the transaction's creation, also known as origination. The transaction is then signed, with one or more signatures indicating the authorization to spend the funds referenced by the transaction. The transaction is then broadcast on the bitcoin network, where each network node (participant) validates and propagates the transaction until it reaches (almost) every node in the network. Finally, the transaction is verified by a mining node and included in a block of transactions that is recorded on the blockchain. Once recorded on the blockchain and confirmed by sufficient subsequent blocks (confirmations), the transaction is a permanent part of the bitcoin ledger and is accepted as valid by all participants. The funds allocated to a new owner by the transaction can then be spend in a new transaction, extending the chain of ownership and beginning the lifecycle of a transaction again. 
+A transaction's lifecycle starts with the transaction's creation, also known as origination. The transaction is then signed, with one or more signatures indicating the authorization to spend the funds referenced by the transaction. The transaction is then broadcast on the bitcoin network, where each network node (participant) validates and propagates the transaction until it reaches (almost) every node in the network. Finally, the transaction is verified by a mining node and included in a block of transactions that is recorded on the blockchain. Once recorded on the blockchain and confirmed by sufficient subsequent blocks (confirmations), the transaction is a permanent part of the bitcoin ledger and is accepted as valid by all participants. The funds allocated to a new owner by the transaction can then be spent in a new transaction, extending the chain of ownership and beginning the lifecycle of a transaction again. 
 
 [[tx_origination]]
 ==== Creating Transactions
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ The blockchain forms the authoritative ledger of all transactions since bitcoin'
 [[tx_structure]]
 === Transaction Structure
 
-A transaction is a data structure that encodes a transfer of value from a source of funds, called an "input", to a destination, called an "output". Transaction inputs and outputs are not related to accounts or identities. Instead you should think of them as bitcoin amounts, chunks of bitcoin, being locked with a specific secret which only the owner, or person know knows the secret, can unlock. 
+A transaction is a data structure that encodes a transfer of value from a source of funds, called an "input", to a destination, called an "output". Transaction inputs and outputs are not related to accounts or identities. Instead you should think of them as bitcoin amounts, chunks of bitcoin, being locked with a specific secret which only the owner, or person who knows the secret, can unlock. 
 
 A transaction contains a number of fields, as follows:
 
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ Transaction fees serve as an incentive to include (mine) a transaction into the
 
 Transaction fees are calculated based on the size of the transaction in kilobytes, not the value of the transaction in bitcoin. Overall, transaction fees are set based on market forces within the bitcoin network. Miners prioritize transactions based on many different criteria, including fees and may even process transactions for free under certain circumstances. Transaction fees affect the processing priority, meaning that a transaction with sufficient fees is likely to be included in the next-most mined block, while a transaction with insufficient or no fees may be delayed, on a best-effort basis and processed after a few blocks or not at all. Transaction fees are not mandatory and transactions without fees may be processed eventually; however, including transaction fees encourages priority processing. 
 
-Over time, the way transaction fees are calculated and the effect they have on transaction prioritization has been evolving. At first, transaction fees were fixed and constant across the network. Gradually, the fee structure has been relaxed so that it may be influenced by market forces, based on network capacity and transaction volume. The current minimum transaction fee is fixed at 0.0001 bitcoin or a tenth of a milli-bitcoin, recently decreased from one milli-bitcoin, per kilobyte. Most transactions are less than one kilobyte; however, those with multiple inputs or outputs can be larger. In future revisions of the bitcoin protocol it is expected that wallet applications will use statistical analysis to calculate the most appropriate fee to attach to a transaction based on the average fees of recent transactions. 
+Over time, the way transaction fees are calculated and the effect they have on transaction prioritization has been evolving. At first, transaction fees were fixed and constant across the network. Gradually, the fee structure has been relaxed so that it may be influenced by market forces, based on network capacity and transaction volume. The current minimum transaction fee is fixed at 0.0001 bitcoin or a tenth of a milli-bitcoin per kilobyte, recently decreased from one milli-bitcoin. Most transactions are less than one kilobyte; however, those with multiple inputs or outputs can be larger. In future revisions of the bitcoin protocol it is expected that wallet applications will use statistical analysis to calculate the most appropriate fee to attach to a transaction based on the average fees of recent transactions. 
 
 The current algorithm used by miners to prioritize transactions for inclusion in a block based on their fees will be examined in detail in <<mining>>.
     
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ If you forget to add a change output in a manually constructed transaction you w
 
 Let's see how this works in practice, by looking at Alice's coffee purchase again. Alice wants to spend 0.015 bitcoin to pay for coffee. To ensure this transaction is processed promptly, she will want to include a transaction fee, say 0.001. That will mean that the total cost of the transaction will be 0.016. Her wallet must therefore source a set of UTXO that adds up to 0.016 bitcoin or more and if necessary create change. Let's say her wallet has a 0.2 bitcoin UTXO available. It will therefore need to consume this UTXO, create one output to Bob's Cafe for 0.015, and a second output with 0.184 bitcoin in change back to her own wallet, leaving 0.001 bitcoin unallocated, as an implicit fee for the transaction. 
 
-Now let's look at a different scenario. Eugenia, our children's charity director in the Philippines has completed a fundraiser to purchase school books for the children. She received several thousand small donations from people all around the world, totaling 50 . Now, she wants to purchase hundreds of school books from a local publisher, paying in bitcoin. The charity received thousands of small donations from all around the world. As Eugenia's wallet application tries to construct a single larger payment transaction, it must source from the available UTXO set which is composed of many smaller amounts. That means that the resulting transaction will source from more than a hundred small-value UTXO as inputs and only one output, paying the book publisher. A transaction with that many inputs will be larger than one kilobyte, perhaps 2-3 kilobytes in size. As a result, it will require a higher fee than the minimal network fee of 0.0001 bitcoin. Eugenia's wallet application will calculate the appropriate fee by measuring the size of the transaction and multiplying that by the per-kilobyte fee. Many wallets will overpay fees for larger transactions to ensure the transaction is processed promptly. The higher fee is not because Eugenia is spending more money, but because her transaction is more complex and larger in size - the fee is independent of the transaction's bitcoin value. 
+Now let's look at a different scenario. Eugenia, our children's charity director in the Philippines has completed a fundraiser to purchase school books for the children. She received several thousand small donations from people all around the world, totaling 50 bitcoin. Now she wants to purchase hundreds of school books from a local publisher, paying in bitcoin. The charity received thousands of small donations from all around the world. As Eugenia's wallet application tries to construct a single larger payment transaction, it must source from the available UTXO set which is composed of many smaller amounts. That means that the resulting transaction will source from more than a hundred small-value UTXO as inputs and only one output, paying the book publisher. A transaction with that many inputs will be larger than one kilobyte, perhaps 2-3 kilobytes in size. As a result, it will require a higher fee than the minimal network fee of 0.0001 bitcoin. Eugenia's wallet application will calculate the appropriate fee by measuring the size of the transaction and multiplying that by the per-kilobyte fee. Many wallets will overpay fees for larger transactions to ensure the transaction is processed promptly. The higher fee is not because Eugenia is spending more money, but because her transaction is more complex and larger in size - the fee is independent of the transaction's bitcoin value. 
 
 [[tx_chains]]
 === Transaction Chaining and Orphan Transactions
@@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ Transactions are valid if the top result on the stack is TRUE (1), any other non
 
 ==== Turing Incompleteness
 
-The bitcoin transaction script language contains many operators but is deliberately limited in one important way -- there are no loops or complex flow control capabilities other than conditional flow control. This ensures that the language is not Turing Complete, meaning that scripts have limited complexity and predictable execution times. Script it is not a general-purpose language. These limitations ensure that the language cannot be used to create an infinite loop or other form of "logic bomb" that could be embedded in a transaction in a way that causes a Denial-of-Service attack against the bitcoin network. Remember, every transaction is validated by every full node on the bitcoin network. A limited language prevents the transaction validation mechanism from being used as a vulnerability. 
+The bitcoin transaction script language contains many operators but is deliberately limited in one important way -- there are no loops or complex flow control capabilities other than conditional flow control. This ensures that the language is not Turing Complete, meaning that scripts have limited complexity and predictable execution times. Script is not a general-purpose language. These limitations ensure that the language cannot be used to create an infinite loop or other form of "logic bomb" that could be embedded in a transaction in a way that causes a Denial-of-Service attack against the bitcoin network. Remember, every transaction is validated by every full node on the bitcoin network. A limited language prevents the transaction validation mechanism from being used as a vulnerability. 
 
 ==== Stateless Verification