Bitcoin is structured as a peer-to-peer network architecture on top of the Internet. The term peer-to-peer or P2P means that the computers that participate in the network are peers to each other, they are all equal there are no "special" nodes and all nodes share the burden of providing network services. The network nodes interconnect in a mesh network with a "flat" topology. There is no "server", no centralized service and no hierarchy within the network. Nodes in a peer-to-peer network both provide and consume services at the same time, with reciprocity acting as the incentive for participation. Peer-to-peer networks are inherently resilient, de-centralized and open. The pre-eminent example of a P2P network architecture was the early Internet itself, where nodes on the IP network were equal. Today's Internet architecture is more hierarchical, but the Internet Protocol still retains its flat-topology essence. Beyond bitcoin, the largest and most successful application of P2P technologies is file sharing, with Napster as the pioneer and bittorrent as the most recent evolution of the architecture.
Bitcoin is structured as a peer-to-peer network architecture on top of the Internet. The term peer-to-peer or P2P means that the computers that participate in the network are peers to each other, they are all equal, there are no "special" nodes and all nodes share the burden of providing network services. The network nodes interconnect in a mesh network with a "flat" topology. There is no "server", no centralized service, and no hierarchy within the network. Nodes in a peer-to-peer network both provide and consume services at the same time, with reciprocity acting as the incentive for participation. Peer-to-peer networks are inherently resilient, de-centralized, and open. The pre-eminent example of a P2P network architecture was the early Internet itself, where nodes on the IP network were equal. Today's Internet architecture is more hierarchical, but the Internet Protocol still retains its flat-topology essence. Beyond bitcoin, the largest and most successful application of P2P technologies is file sharing, with Napster as the pioneer and bittorrent as the most recent evolution of the architecture.
Bitcoins P2P network architecture is much more than a topology choice. Bitcoin is a peer-to-peer digital cash system by design, and the network architecture is both a reflection and a foundation of that core characteristic. De-centralization of control is a core design principle and that can only be achieved and maintained by a flat, de-centralized P2P consensus network.
Bitcoin's P2P network architecture is much more than a topology choice. Bitcoin is a peer-to-peer digital cash system by design, and the network architecture is both a reflection and a foundation of that core characteristic. De-centralization of control is a core design principle and that can only be achieved and maintained by a flat, de-centralized P2P consensus network.
The term "bitcoin network" refers to the collection of nodes running the bitcoin P2P protocol. In addition to the bitcoin P2P protocol, there are other protocols such as Stratum, that are used for mining and lightweight or mobile wallets. These additional protocols are provided by gateway routing servers that access the bitcoin network using the bitcoin P2P protocol and then extend that network to nodes running other protocols. For example, Stratum servers connect Stratum mining nodes via the Stratum protocol to the main bitcoin network and bridge the Stratum protocol to the bitcoin P2P protocol. We use the term "extended bitcoin network" to refer to the overall network that includes the bitcoin P2P protocol, pool mining protocols, the Stratum protocol and any other related protocols connecting the components of the bitcoin system.
The term "bitcoin network" refers to the collection of nodes running the bitcoin P2P protocol. In addition to the bitcoin P2P protocol, there are other protocols such as Stratum, that are used for mining and lightweight or mobile wallets. These additional protocols are provided by gateway routing servers that access the bitcoin network using the bitcoin P2P protocol and then extend that network to nodes running other protocols. For example, Stratum servers connect Stratum mining nodes via the Stratum protocol to the main bitcoin network and bridge the Stratum protocol to the bitcoin P2P protocol. We use the term "extended bitcoin network" to refer to the overall network that includes the bitcoin P2P protocol, pool mining protocols, the Stratum protocol, and any other related protocols connecting the components of the bitcoin system.
The main bitcoin network, running the bitcoin P2P protocol consists of between 7,000 to 10,000 nodes running various versions of the bitcoin reference client (Bitcoin Core) and a few hundred nodes running various other implementations of the bitcoin P2P protocol, such as BitcoinJ, Libbitcoin and btcd. A small percentage of the nodes on the bitcoin P2P network are also mining nodes, competing in the mining process, validating transactions and creating new blocks. Various large companies interface with the bitcoin network by running full-node clients based on the Bitcoin Core client, with full copies of the blockchain and a network node, but without mining or wallet functions. These nodes act as network edge routers, allowing various other services (exchanges, wallets, block explorers, merchant payment processing) to be built on top.
The main bitcoin network, running the bitcoin P2P protocol consists of between 7,000 to 10,000 nodes running various versions of the bitcoin reference client (Bitcoin Core) and a few hundred nodes running various other implementations of the bitcoin P2P protocol, such as BitcoinJ, Libbitcoin, and btcd. A small percentage of the nodes on the bitcoin P2P network are also mining nodes, competing in the mining process, validating transactions, and creating new blocks. Various large companies interface with the bitcoin network by running full-node clients based on the Bitcoin Core client, with full copies of the blockchain and a network node, but without mining or wallet functions. These nodes act as network edge routers, allowing various other services (exchanges, wallets, block explorers, merchant payment processing) to be built on top.
The extended bitcoin network includes the network running the bitcoin P2P protocol, described above, as well as nodes running specialized protocols. Attached to the main bitcoin P2P network are a number of pool servers and protocol gateways that connect nodes running other protocols, mostly pool mining nodes (see <<mining>>) and lightweight wallet clients, which do not carry a full copy of the blockchain.
The diagram below shows the extended bitcoin network with the various types of nodes, gateway servers, edge routers and wallet clients and the various protocols they use to connect to each other.
The diagram below shows the extended bitcoin network with the various types of nodes, gateway servers, edge routers, and wallet clients and the various protocols they use to connect to each other.
[[bitcoin_network]]
.The extended bitcoin network showing various node types, gateways and protocols
@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ $ bitcoin-cli getpeerinfo
To override the automatic management of peers and to specify a list of IP addresses, users can provide the option +-connect=<IPAddress>+ and specify one or more IP addresses. If this option is used, the node will only connect to the selected IP addresses, instead of discovering and maintaining the peer connections automatically.
If there is no traffic on a connection, nodes will periodically send a message to maintain the connection. If a node has not communicated on a connection for more than 90 minutes it is assumed to be disconnected and a new peer will be sought. Thus the network dynamically adjusts to transient nodes, network problems, and can organically grow and shrink as needed without any central control.
If there is no traffic on a connection, nodes will periodically send a message to maintain the connection. If a node has not communicated on a connection for more than 90 minutes, it is assumed to be disconnected and a new peer will be sought. Thus the network dynamically adjusts to transient nodes, network problems, and can organically grow and shrink as needed without any central control.
=== Full Nodes
@ -129,7 +129,7 @@ Full nodes are nodes that maintain a full blockchain, with all transactions. Mor
Full blockchain nodes maintain a complete and up-to-date copy of the bitcoin blockchain, with all the transactions, which they independently build and verify, starting with the very first block (genesis block) and up to the latest known block in the network. A full blockchain node can independently and authoritatively verify any transaction, without recourse or reliance on any other node or source of information. The full blockchain node relies on the network to receive updates about new blocks of transactions, which it then verifies and incorporates into its local copy of the blockchain.
Running a full blockchain node gives you the pure bitcoin experience: independent verification of all transactions without the need to rely on, or trust, any other systems. It's easy to tell if you're running a full node because it requires several gigabytes of persistent storage (disk space) to store the full blockchain. If you need a lot of disk and it takes 2-3 days to "sync" to the network you are running a full node. That is the price of complete independence and freedom from central authority.
Running a full blockchain node gives you the pure bitcoin experience: independent verification of all transactions without the need to rely on, or trust, any other systems. It's easy to tell if you're running a full node because it requires several gigabytes of persistent storage (disk space) to store the full blockchain. If you need a lot of disk and it takes 2-3 days to "sync" to the network, you are running a full node. That is the price of complete independence and freedom from central authority.
There are a few alternative implementations of full-blockchain bitcoin clients, built using different programming languages and software architectures. However, the most common implementation is the reference client Bitcoin Core, also known as the Satoshi Client. More than 90% of the nodes on the bitcoin network run various versions of Bitcoin Core. It is identified as "Satoshi" in the sub-version string sent in the +version+ message and shown by the command +getpeerinfo+ as we saw above, for example +/Satoshi:0.8.6/+.
@ -139,11 +139,11 @@ The first thing a full node will do once it connects to peers is try to construc
The process of "syncing" the blockchain starts with the +version+ message, as that contains +BestHeight+, a node's current blockchain height (number of blocks). A node will see the +version+ messages from its peers, know how many blocks they each have and be able to compare to how many blocks it has in its own blockchain. Peered nodes will exchange a +getblocks+ message that contains the hash (fingerprint) of the top block on their local blockchain. One of the peers will be able to identify the received hash as belonging to a block that is not at the top, but rather belongs to an older block, thus deducing that its own local blockchain is longer than its peer's.
The peer that has the longer blockchain has more blocks that the other node and can identify which blocks the other node needs to "catch up". It will identify the first 500 blocks to share and transmit their hashes using an +inv+ (inventory) message. The node missing these blocks will then retrieve them, by issuing a series of +getdata+ messages requesting the full block data and identifying the requested blocks using the hashes from the +inv+ message.
The peer that has the longer blockchain, has more blocks than the other node and can identify which blocks the other node needs to "catch up". It will identify the first 500 blocks to share and transmit their hashes using an +inv+ (inventory) message. The node missing these blocks will then retrieve them, by issuing a series of +getdata+ messages requesting the full block data and identifying the requested blocks using the hashes from the +inv+ message.
Let's assume for example that a node only has the genesis block. It will then receive an +inv+ message from its peers containing the hashes of the next 500 blocks in the chain. It will start requesting blocks from all its connected peers, spreading the load and ensuring that it doesn't overwhelm any peer with requests. The node keeps track of how many blocks are "in transit" per peer connection, meaning blocks that it has requested but not received, checking that it does not exceed a limit (MAX_BLOCKS_IN_TRANSIT_PER_PEER). This way, if it needs a lot of blocks, it will only request new ones as previous requests are fulfilled, allowing the peers to control the pace of updates and not overwhelming the network. As each block is received, it is added to the blockchain as we will see in the next chapter <<blockchain>>. The local blockchain is gradually built up, more blocks are requested and received and the process continues until the node catches up to the rest of the network.
Let's assume for example that a node only has the genesis block. It will then receive an +inv+ message from its peers containing the hashes of the next 500 blocks in the chain. It will start requesting blocks from all of its connected peers, spreading the load and ensuring that it doesn't overwhelm any peer with requests. The node keeps track of how many blocks are "in transit" per peer connection, meaning blocks that it has requested but not received, checking that it does not exceed a limit (MAX_BLOCKS_IN_TRANSIT_PER_PEER). This way, if it needs a lot of blocks, it will only request new ones as previous requests are fulfilled, allowing the peers to control the pace of updates and not overwhelming the network. As each block is received, it is added to the blockchain as we will see in the next chapter <<blockchain>>. The local blockchain is gradually built up, more blocks are requested and received and the process continues until the node catches up to the rest of the network.
This process of comparing the local blockchain with the peers and retrieving any missing blocks happens any time a node goes offline for any period of time. Whether a node has been offline for a few minutes and is missing a few blocks, or a month and is missing a few thousand blocks, it starts by sending +getblocks+, gets an +inv+ response and starts downloading the missing blocks.
This process of comparing the local blockchain with the peers and retrieving any missing blocks happens any time a node goes offline for any period of time. Whether a node has been offline for a few minutes and is missing a few blocks, or a month and is missing a few thousand blocks, it starts by sending +getblocks+, gets an +inv+ response, and starts downloading the missing blocks.
[[inventory_synchronization]]
.Node synchronizing the blockchain by retrieving blocks from a peer
Not all nodes have the ability to store the full blockchain. Many bitcoin clients are designed to run on space- and power-constrained devices, such as smartphones, tablets or embedded systems. For such devices, a _simple payment verification_ (SPV) method is used to allow them to operate without storing the full blockchain. These types of clients are called SPV clients or lightweight clients. As bitcoin adoption surges, the SPV node is becoming the most common form of bitcoin node, especially for bitcoin wallets.
SPV nodes download only the block headers and do not download the transactions included in each block. The resulting chain of blocks, without transactions, is 1,000 times smaller than the full blockchain. SPV nodes cannot construct a full picture of all the UTXO that is available for spending, as they do not know about all the transactions on the network. SPV nodes verify transactions using a slightly different methodology that relies on peers to provide partial views of relevant parts of the blockchain on-demand.
SPV nodes download only the block headers and do not download the transactions included in each block. The resulting chain of blocks, without transactions, is 1,000 times smaller than the full blockchain. SPV nodes cannot construct a full picture of all the UTXOs that are available for spending, as they do not know about all the transactions on the network. SPV nodes verify transactions using a slightly different methodology that relies on peers to provide partial views of relevant parts of the blockchain on-demand.
As an analogy, a full node is like a tourist in a strange city, equipped with a detailed map of every street and every address. By comparison, an SPV node is like a tourist in a strange city asking random strangers for turn-by-turn directions while knowing only one main avenue. While both tourists can verify the existence of a street by visiting it, the tourist without a map doesn't know what lies down any of the side streets and doesn't know what other streets exist. Positioned in front of 23 Church Street, the tourist without a map cannot know if there are a dozen other "23 Church Street" addresses in the city and whether this is the right one. The map-less tourist's best chance is to ask enough people and hope some of them are not trying to mug the tourist.
@ -163,11 +163,11 @@ For example, when examining a transaction in block 300,000, a full node links al
An SPV node cannot be persuaded that a transaction exists in a block, when it does not in fact exist. The SPV node establishes the existence of a transaction in a block by requesting a merkle path proof and by validating the proof-of-work in the chain of blocks. However, a transaction's existence can be "hidden" from an SPV node. An SPV node can definitely prove that a transaction exists but cannot verify that a transaction, such as a double-spend of the same UTXO, doesn't exist because it doesn't have a record of all transactions. This type of attack can be used as a Denial-of-Service attack or as a double-spending attack against SPV nodes. To defend against this, an SPV node needs to connect randomly to several nodes, to increase the probability that it is in contact with at least one honest node. SPV nodes are therefore vulnerable to network partitioning attacks or Sybil attacks, where they are connected to fake nodes or fake networks and do not have access to honest nodes or the real bitcoin network.
For most practical purposes, well-connected SPV nodes are secure enough, striking the right balance between resource needs, practicality and security. For the truly security conscious, however, nothing beats running a full blockchain node.
For most practical purposes, well-connected SPV nodes are secure enough, striking the right balance between resource needs, practicality, and security. For the truly security conscious, however, nothing beats running a full blockchain node.
[TIP]
====
A full blockchain node verifies a transaction by checking the chain of thousands of blocks below it and checks the UTXO is not spent, whereas an SPV node checks how deep the block is buried by a handful of blocks above it.
A full blockchain node verifies a transaction by checking the chain of thousands of blocks below it and checks that the UTXO is not spent, whereas an SPV node checks how deep the block is buried by a handful of blocks above it.
====
To get the block headers, SPV nodes use a +getheaders+ message instead of +getblocks+. The responding peer will send up to 2000 block headers using a single +headers+ message. The process is otherwise the same as that used by a full node to retrieve full blocks. SPV nodes also set a filter on the connection to peers, to filter the stream of future blocks and transactions sent by the peers. Any transactions of interest are retrieved using a +getdata+ request. The peer generates a +tx+ message containing the transactions, in response.
@ -244,7 +244,7 @@ The node setting the bloom filter can interactively add patterns to the filter b
[[transaction_pools]]
=== Transaction Pools
Almost every node on the bitcoin network maintains a temporary list of unconfirmed transactions called the memory pool or transaction pool. Nodes use this pool to keep track of transactions that are known to the network but are not yet included in the blockchain. For example, a node that holds a users wallet will use the transaction pool to track incoming payments to the users wallet that have been received on the network but are not yet confirmed.
Almost every node on the bitcoin network maintains a temporary list of unconfirmed transactions called the memory pool or transaction pool. Nodes use this pool to keep track of transactions that are known to the network but are not yet included in the blockchain. For example, a node that holds a user's wallet will use the transaction pool to track incoming payments to the user's wallet that have been received on the network but are not yet confirmed.
As transactions are received and verified, they are added to the transaction pool and relayed to the neighboring nodes to propagate on the network.
@ -271,9 +271,9 @@ Alert messages are propagated by the +alert+ message. The alert message contains
* subVer - The client software version that this alert applies to
* Priority - An alert priority level, currently unused
Alerts are cryptographically signed by a public key. The corresponding private key is held by a few select members of the core development team. The digital signature ensures that fake alerts will not be propagated on the network.
Alerts are cryptographically signed by a public key. The corresponding private key is held by a few selected members of the core development team. The digital signature ensures that fake alerts will not be propagated on the network.
Each node receiving this alert message will verify it, check for expiration and propagate it to all its peers, thus ensuring rapid propagation across the entire network. In addition to propagating the alert, each node may implement a user interface function to present the alert to the user.
Each node receiving this alert message will verify it, check for expiration, and propagate it to all its peers, thus ensuring rapid propagation across the entire network. In addition to propagating the alert, each node may implement a user interface function to present the alert to the user.
In the Bitcoin Core client, the alert is configured with the command line option +-alertnotify+, which specifies a command to run when an alert is received. The alert message is passed as a parameter to the alertnotify command. Most commonly, the alertnotify command is set to generate an email message to the administrator of the node, containing the alert message. The alert is also displayed as a pop-up dialog in the graphical user interface (bitcoin-Qt) if it is running.
{Now that the Jing's node has built a candidate block and populated the transactions and merkle root, this block must be linked to the other blocks in the blockchain {must be ready to link to other blocks (if he wins the competition)}. In this section we will look at the blockchain data structure in more detail and see how Jing will extend this chain with the new block. MOVE TO 8?}
The blockchain data structure is an ordered back-linked list of blocks of transactions. The blockchain can be stored as a flat file, or in a simple database. The bitcoin core client stores the blockchain metadata using Google's LevelDB database. Blocks are linked "back", each referring to the previous block in the chain. The blockchain is often visualized as a vertical stack, with blocks layered on top of each other and the first block ever serving as the foundation of the stack. The visualization of blocks stacked on top of each other results in the use of terms like "height", to refer to the distance from the first block, and "top" or "tip" to refer to the most recently added block.
The blockchain data structure is an ordered linked list of blocks of transactions. The blockchain can be stored as a flat file, or in a simple database. The bitcoin core client stores the blockchain metadata using Google's LevelDB database.
Each block within the blockchain is identified by a hash, generated using the SHA256 cryptographic hash algorithm on the header of the block. Each block also references a previous block, known as the _parent_ block, through the "previous block hash" field in the block header. In other words, each block contains the hash of its parent inside its own header. The sequence of hashes linking each block to its parent, creates a chain going back all the way to the first block ever created, known as the _genesis block_.
Each block within the blockchain is identified by a hash, generated using the SHA256 cryptographic hash algorithm on the header of the block. Each block also references a previous block, known as the _parent_ block, through the "previous block hash" field in the block header. In other words, each block contains the hash of its parent inside its own header. The sequence of hashes linking each block to its parent, creates a chain going back all the way to the first block ever created, known as the _genesis block_. A block can have multiple children, each of which refers to it as its parent and contains the same hash in the "previous block hash" field. However, since a block only hash one single "previous block hash", that means each block can only have one parent. {one of which will win out while the others die...}
While a block has just one parent, it can temporarily have multiple children. Each of the children refers to the same block as its parent and contains the same (parent) hash in the "previous block hash" field. Multiple children arise during a blockchain "fork", a temporary situation that occurs when different blocks are discovered almost simultaneously by different miners (see <<forks>>). Eventually, only one child block becomes part of the blockchain and the "fork" is resolved. Even though a block may have more than one child, each block can have only one parent. This is because a block has one single "previous block hash" field referencing its single parent.
The hash of the parent is also part of the data (the block header) that creates the hash of the child, making the ancestry of each block an immutable part of its identity. The chain of hashes guarantees that a block cannot be modified retrospectively without forcing the re-computation of all following blocks (children), because a retrospective change in any block would change its hash, thereby changing the reference in any children whose hash also changes, and so on. As new blocks are added to the chain, they strengthen the immutability of the ledger by effectively incorporating all previous blocks by reference in their cryptographic hash.
The "previous block hash" field is inside the block header and thereby affects the _current_ block's hash. The child's own identity changes if the parent's identity changes. When the parent is modified in any way, the parent's hash changes. The parent's changed hash necessitates a change in the "previous block hash" pointer of the child. This in turn causes the child's hash to change, which requires a change in the pointer of the grandchild, which in turn changes the grandchild and so on. This cascade effect ensures that once a block has many generations following it, it cannot be changed without forcing a recalculation of all subsequent blocks. Because such a recalculation would require enormous computation, the existence of a long chain of blocks makes the blockchain's deep history immutable, a key feature of bitcoin's security.
One way to think about the blockchain is like layers in a geological formation, or glacier core sample. The surface layers may change with the seasons, or even be blown away before they have time to settle. But once you go a few inches deep, geological layers become more and more stable. By the time you look a few hundred feet down, you are looking at a snapshot of the past that has remained undisturbed for millennia or millions of years. In the blockchain, the most recent few blocks may be revised if there is a chain recalculation due to a fork. The top six blocks are like a few inches of topsoil. But once you go deeper into the blockchain, beyond 6 blocks, blocks are less and less likely to change. After 100 blocks back there is so much stability that the "coinbase" transaction, containing new bitcoin, can be spent. A few thousand blocks back (a month) and the blockchain is settled history. It will never change.
=== Structure of a Block
A block is a container data structure that aggregates transactions for inclusion in the public ledger, the blockchain. The block is made of a header, containing metadata, followed by a long list of transactions that make up the bulk of it's size.
A block is a container data structure that aggregates transactions for inclusion in the public ledger, the blockchain. The block is made of a header, containing metadata, followed by a long list of transactions that make up the bulk of it's size. The block header is 80 bytes, whereas the average transaction is at least 250 bytes and the average block contains more than 500 transactions. A complete block, with all transactions, is therefore 1000 times larger than the block header.
[[block_structure]]
.The structure of a block
[options="header"]
|=======
|Size| Field | Description
| 4 bytes | Magic Number | A constant (0xD9B4BEF9) used to easily recognize bitcoin blocks
| 4 bytes | Block Size | The size of the block, in bytes, following this field
| 80 bytes | Block Header | Several fields form the block header (see below)
| 1-9 bytes (VarInt) | Transaction Counter | How many transactions follow
| Variable | Transactions | The transactions recorded in this block
|=======
Jing's mining node creates a candidate block by building an empty data structure and then filling it with transactions and the appropriate metadata. We'll ignore the header for now, as it is the last thing filled in by a node and concentrate instead on the transactions and how they are added to the block. Jing's node uses a selection algorithm to pick transactions from the memory pool (and the orphan pool if the parent has arrived) and adds them after the block header. The selection algorithm is detailed in the next section.
[[block_header]]
=== Block Header
The block header consists of three sets of block metadata. First, there is a reference to a previous block hash, which connects this block to the previous block in the blockchain. We will examine this in more detail in <<blockchain>>. The second set of metadata, namely the difficulty, timestamp and nonce, relate to the mining competition, as detailed in <<mining>>. The third piece of metadata is the Merkle Tree root, a data structure used to efficiently summarize all the transactions in the block.
Jing's node will next assemble the metadata and fill in the candidate block's header.
[[block_structure]]
.The structure of the block header
[options="header"]
@ -53,15 +49,16 @@ Jing's node will next assemble the metadata and fill in the candidate block's he
| 4 bytes | Nonce | A counter used for the proof-of-work algorithm
|=======
The Nonce, Difficulty Target and Timestamp are used in the mining process and will be discussed in more detail in <<mining>>.
[[block_hash]]
=== Block Identifiers - Block Header Hash and Block Height
The primary identifier of a block is its cryptographic hash, a digital fingerprint, made by hashing the block header twice through the SHA256 algorithm. The resulting 32-byte hash, is called the _block hash_, but is more accurately the _block *header* hash_, as only the block header is used to compute it. For example, the block hash of the first bitcoin block ever created is +000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+. The block hash identifies a block uniquely and unambiguously and can be independently derived by any node by simply hashing the block header.
Note that the block hash is not actually included inside the block's data structure, neither when the block is transmitted on the network, nor when it is stored on a node's persistence storage as part of the blockchain. Instead, the block's hash is computed by each node as the block is received from the network. On full nodes, the block hash may be stored in a separate database table as part of the block's metadata, to facilitate indexing and faster retrieval of block from disk.
Note that the block hash is not actually included inside the block's data structure, neither when the block is transmitted on the network, nor when it is stored on a node's persistence storage as part of the blockchain. Instead, the block's hash is computed by each node as the block is received from the network. The block hash may be stored in a separate database table as part of the block's metadata, to facilitate indexing and faster retrieval of blocks from disk.
A second way to identify a block is by its position in the blockchain, called the _block height_. The first block ever created is at block height 0 (zero), and is the same block that was referenced by the block hash +000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+ {above - CHECK TO SEE IF ABOVE OR BELOW}. A block can thus be identified two ways, either by referencing the block hash, or by referencing the block height. Each subsequent block added "on top" of that first block is one position "higher" in the blockchain, like boxes stacked one on top of the other. The block height on January 1st 2014 was approximately 278,000, meaning there were 278,000 blocks stacked on top of the first block created in January 2009.
A second way to identify a block is by its position in the blockchain, called the _block height_. The first block ever created is at block height 0 (zero), and is the same block that was referenced by the block hash +000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+ above. A block can thus be identified two ways, either by referencing the block hash, or by referencing the block height. Each subsequent block added "on top" of that first block is one position "higher" in the blockchain, like boxes stacked one on top of the other. The block height on January 1st 2014 was approximately 278,000, meaning there were 278,000 blocks stacked on top of the first block created in January 2009.
Unlike the block hash, the block height is not a unique identifier. While a single block will always have a specific and invariant block height, the reverse is not true - the block height does not always identify a single block. Two or more blocks may have the same block height, competing for the same position in the blockchain. This scenario is discussed in detail in the section on <<forks>>. The block height is also not a part of the block's data structure, it is not stored within the block. Each node dynamically identifies a block's position (height) in the blockchain when it is received from the bitcoin network. The block height may also be stored as metadata in an indexed database table for faster retrieval.
@ -74,6 +71,11 @@ A block's _block hash_ always identifies a single block uniquely. A block also a
The first block in the blockchain is called the _genesis block_ and was created in 2009. It is the "common ancestor" of all the blocks in the blockchain, meaning that if you start at any block and follow the chain backwards in time you will eventually arrive at the _genesis block_.
Every node always starts with a blockchain of at least one block because the genesis block is statically encoded within the bitcoin client software, such that it cannot be altered. Every node always "knows" the genesis block's hash and structure, the fixed time it was created and even the single transaction within. Thus, every node has the starting point for the blockchain, a secure "root" from which to build a trusted blockchain.
See the statically encoded genesis block inside the Bitcoin Core client, in chainparams.cpp, line 123:
The genesis block has the identifier hash +000000000019d6689c085ae165831e934ff763ae46a2a6c172b3f1b60a8ce26f+. You can search for that block hash in any block explorer website, such as blockchain.info, and you will find a page describing the contents of this block, with a URL containing that hash:
The genesis block contains a hidden message within it. The coinbase transaction input contains the text "The Times 03/Jan/2009 Chancellor on brink of second bailout for banks". This message provides proof of the earliest date this block was created, by referencing the headline of the british newspaper _The Times_. It also serves as a tongue-in-cheek reminder of the importance of an independent monetary system, with bitcoin's launch occurring at the same time as an unprecedented worldwide monetary crisis. The message was embedded in the first block by Satoshi Nakamoto, bitcoin's creator.
=== Linking Blocks in the Blockchain
Jing's node maintains a complete copy of the blockchain, starting at the genesis block. The local copy of the blockchain is constantly updated as new blocks are found and used to extend the chain. As Jing's node receives incoming blocks from the network, it will validate these blocks and then link them to the existing blockchain. To establish a link, Jing's node will examine the incoming block header and look for the "previous block hash".
Bitcoin nodes maintain a local copy of the blockchain, starting at the genesis block. The local copy of the blockchain is constantly updated as new blocks are found and used to extend the chain. As a node receives incoming blocks from the network, it will validate these blocks and then link them to the existing blockchain. To establish a link, a node will examine the incoming block header and look for the "previous block hash".
Let's assume for example that Jing's node has 277,314 blocks in the local copy of the blockchain. The last block Jing's node knows about is block 277314, with a block header hash of +00000000000000027e7ba6fe7bad39faf3b5a83daed765f05f7d1b71a1632249+.
Let's assume for example that a node has 277,314 blocks in the local copy of the blockchain. The last block the node knows about is block 277,314, with a block header hash of +00000000000000027e7ba6fe7bad39faf3b5a83daed765f05f7d1b71a1632249+.
Jing's node then receives a new block from the network, which it parses as follows:
The bitcoin node then receives a new block from the network, which it parses as follows:
----
{
"size" : 43560,
@ -131,10 +134,7 @@ Jing's node then receives a new block from the network, which it parses as follo
}
----
Looking at this new block, Jing's node sees the "previousblockhash" field contains the hash of its parent block. It is a hash known to Jing's node, that of the last block on the chain at height 277314. Therefore, this new block is a child of the last block on the chain and extends the existing blockchain. Jing's node adds this new block to the end of the chain, making its heigh 277315.
The moment Jing's node received this block (height 277315), this event signified that another node on the network had won this round of the mining competition. Jing's mining node then created the candidate block for the new round of the competition. After filling the candidate block with transactions, Jing's node needs to populate the header of the candidate block and therefore link it to the rest of the blockchain. The existing block at height 277315 will be the parent of Jing's new candidate block. Jing's node will therefore populate the "previous block hash" field in the candidate block with the hash of the block at height 277315.
Looking at this new block, the node finds the "previousblockhash" field, which contains the hash of its parent block. It is a hash known to the node, that of the last block on the chain at height 277,314. Therefore, this new block is a child of the last block on the chain and extends the existing blockchain. The node adds this new block to the end of the chain, making the blockchain longer with a new height of 277,315.
[[chain_of_blocks]]
.Blocks linked in a chain, by reference to the previous block header hash
@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ Since the merkle tree is a binary tree, it needs an even number of leaf nodes. I
.An even number of data elements, by duplicating one data element
The same method for constructing a tree from four transactions can be generalized to construct trees of any size. In bitcoin it is common to have several hundred to more than a thousand transactions in a single block, which are summarized in exactly the same way producing just 32-bytes of data from a single merkle root. In the diagram below, you will see a tree built from 16 transactions:
The same method for constructing a tree from four transactions can be generalized to construct trees of any size. In bitcoin it is common to have several hundred to more than a thousand transactions in a single block, which are summarized in exactly the same way producing just 32-bytes of data from a single merkle root. In the diagram below, you will see a tree built from 16 transactions. Note that while the root looks bigger than the leaf nodes in the diagram, it is the exact same size, just 32 bytes. Whether there is one transaction or a hundred thousand transactions in the block, the merkle root always summarizes them into 32 bytes:
[[merkle_tree_large]]
.A Merkle Tree summarizing many data elements
@ -196,9 +196,13 @@ The efficiency of merkle trees becomes obvious as the scale increases. For examp
As you can see from the table above, while the block size increases rapidly, from 4KB with 16 transactions to a block size of 16 MB to fit 65,535 transactions, the merkle path required to prove the inclusion of a transaction increases much more slowly, from 128 bytes to only 512 bytes. With merkle trees, a node can download just the block headers (80 bytes per block) and still be able to identify a transaction's inclusion in a block by retrieving a small merkle path from a full node, without storing or transmitting the vast majority of the blockchain which may be several gigabytes in size. Nodes which do not maintain a full blockchain, called Simple Payment Verification or SPV nodes use merkle paths to verify transactions without downloading full blocks.
As you can see from the table above, while the block size increases rapidly, from 4KB with 16 transactions to a block size of 16 MB to fit 65,535 transactions, the merkle path required to prove the inclusion of a transaction increases much more slowly, from 128 bytes to only 512 bytes. With merkle trees, a node can download just the block headers (80 bytes per block) and still be able to identify a transaction's inclusion in a block by retrieving a small merkle path from a full node, without storing or transmitting the vast majority of the blockchain which may be several gigabytes in size. Nodes which do not maintain a full blockchain, called Simple Payment Verification or SPV nodes use merkle paths to verify transactions without downloading full blocks.
=== Merkle Trees and Simple Payment Verification (SPV)
Merkle trees are used extensively by Simple Payment Verification nodes. SPV nodes don't have all transactions and do not download full blocks, just block headers. In order to verify that a transaction is included in a block, without having to download all the transactions in the block, they use an _authentication path_, or merkle path.
Consider for example an SPV node that is interested in incoming payments to an address contained in its wallet. The SPV node will establish a bloom filter on its connections to peers to limit the transactions received to only those containing addresses of interest. When a peer sees a transaction that matches the bloom filter, it will send that block using a +merkleblock+ message. The +merkleblock+ message contains the block header as well as a merkle path that links the transaction of interest to the merkle root in the block. The SPV node can use this merkle path to connect the transaction to the block and verify that the transaction is included in the block. The SPV node also uses the block header to link the block to the rest of the blockchain. The combination of these two links, between the transaction and block, and between the block and blockchain, proves that the transaction is recorded in the blockchain. All in all, the SPV node will have received less than a kilobyte of data for the block header and merkle path, an amount of data that is a thousand times less than a full block (about 1 megabyte currently)
Andreas M. Antonopoulos
10 years ago